October 22, 2009
Embedded video from <a href=”http://www.cnn.com/video” mce_href=”http://www.cnn.com/video”>CNN Video</a>
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http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/tech/2009/10/21/vo.tokyo.motor.show.monocycle.cnn
Honda debuts a one-wheel personal mobility device at the Tokyo Motor Show.
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September 18, 2009
Meanwhile, the Cold War rivals carried out more nuclear tests—by 1958,
the United States had conducted 197, the Soviet Union 103 and the United
Kingdom 21.
[ . . . ]
Meanwhile, three atmospheric tests in 1960 had signalled France’s entry into the nuclear club. In an increasingly toxic atmosphere of distrust and recrimination, the Ten-Nation Disarmament Committee convened in Geneva.25 It considered a joint US–Soviet initiative that set general and complete disarmament as an ultimate goal, but did not get far.26 In August 1961, the Berlin Wall went up.
President John F. Kennedy had decided to revive Eisenhower’s test-ban
initiative when he took offi ce in January 1961, but was unable to take
the issue forward in his fi rst couple of years. Using the French tests as
an excuse, fi rst the United States and then the Soviet Union broke their
moratoria and resumed testing, both with greatly accelerated programmes.
After September 1961 and throughout 1962, the Soviet Union conducted
an estimated 93 atmospheric tests, and the United States 39. During that
time the United States also experimented with 67 underground tests, while
the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom each conducted two.27
** [from document linked below from UNIDIR - 2009]
The global alarm system supporting the Treaty—the verification regime being built around the world to ensure compliance with the ban—moves toward completion. It has already proven itself admirably. In 2006, with only 60% of the system complete, a low-yield nuclear test conducted by North Korea was detected by 20 stations (both seismic and radionuclide) around the globe. Since then more than 60 monitoring stations have been added to the system, and the capacity to detect noble gases—the smoking gun of a nuclear explosion—has been doubled from 10 systems to 20.
[etc.]
Three years later, after intense and sometimes dramatic negotiations, the
CTBT was overwhelmingly adopted by the UN General Assembly. On
24 September 1996, it was opened for signature. The President of the
United States signed first, using John F. Kennedy’s pen. The foreign ministers from China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom followed, as others queued up. By 7 March 1997, when the treaty was handed over to Vienna, the host city for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), 142 states, including Iran and Israel, had signed.
In accordance with the treaty, the CTBTO’s Provisional Technical Secretariat established an international monitoring system with seismic, radionuclide, hydroacoustic and infrasound sensors located around the world, feeding
information into the International Data Centre in Vienna.
[Excerpts from - ]
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/ouvrages/pdf-1-978-92-9045-194-5-en.pdf
It is my hope that this project, generously funded by the Governments
of Finland, Japan and Norway and written by Dr Rebecca Johnson, with
all the authority she bestows on the historical account, will provide the
international community with insights and signposts as to how to bring this
important Treaty into force and give it the teeth, through the International
Monitoring System embodied in the Treaty, that the world needs and
demands.
Patricia Lewis
Director, UNIDIR (1997–2008)
******
Chapter 7
Designing a robust verifi cation regime ……………………………………. 145
The International Monitoring System ………………………………… 148
The seismic signature ……………………………………………….. 151
Detecting airborne radioactivity …………………………………. 152
Hearing underwater explosions …………………………………. 154
Picking up shockwaves …………………………………………….. 154
Satellites and electromagnetic pulse monitoring ……………. 155
Interpreting IMS data ……………………………………………….. 155
On-site inspections ………………………………………………………… 157
Intrusion versus protection ………………………………………… 160
Transparency ………………………………………………………….. 162
Phased inspections, decision-making and access …………… 163
National technical means …………………………………………. 166
Chapter 9
Securing the CTBT ……………………………………………………………… 209
Field exercises in on-site inspections …………………………………. 212
Civilian benefi ts of the CTBT …………………………………………… 215
Unfi nished business ………………………………………………………. 216
Provisional application of the CTBT:
only as a last resort ……………………………………………….. 227
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….. 231
***
SPECIAL COMMENT
The publication of this book is indeed very timely.
As the threat posed by the existence of nuclear weapons once again comes
to the fore of the international agenda, a new political momentum gathers
behind the comprehensive test.
For too long now this Treaty has been a hostage of fortune: left on the
sidelines because circumstances in the international arms control regime
were not conducive to agreement of any kind, let alone those measures
already widely supported and enacted around the globe, such as the
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.
It is time to write a new chapter in the fi ght against nuclear weapons. A
chapter that will see no more countries entering the nuclear weapons club
and no new nuclear weapons entering the arsenals of existing members. A
chapter that will erase once and for all the scar of nuclear weapons testing
from the Earth. The time has come for this Treaty, and the global alarm
system that supports it, to enter into force.
We are ready to begin.
One hundred and eighty nations have signed up to the Treaty’s principles,
150 of whom have ratifi ed their commitment. A de facto norm against
testing waits to be inscribed in the international rule book proper.
The global alarm system supporting the Treaty—the verification regime being built around the world to ensure compliance with the ban—moves toward completion. It has already proven itself admirably. In 2006, with only 60% of the system complete, a low-yield nuclear test conducted by North Korea was detected by 20 stations (both seismic and radionuclide) around the globe. Since then more than 60 monitoring stations have been
added to the system, and the capacity to detect noble gases—the smoking gun of a nuclear explosion—has been doubled from 10 systems to 20.
In short, the Treaty is standing at the door, waiting to enter. This opportunity is knocking and we must answer. It is a call for determined leadership, a call to action. The time of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty is now.
Tibor Tóth
Executive Secretary
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
***&&&&*****
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
They were not told what had happened, why it had happened,
what was wrong with them. Their hair was falling out, fi nger nails were falling off—but they were never told why.
Darlene Keju-Johnson, Marshall Islands,
speaking about the impact of fi rst thermonuclear bomb test,
codenamed Bravo, on Bikini Atoll, 1 March 1954.1
From the first atomic explosion above New Mexico in July 1945 to the
underground nuclear test conducted by North Korea in October 2006,
nuclear testing has defi ned the nuclear age.
The first nuclear explosion was codenamed Trinity and carried out in
Alamogordo, New Mexico. It was followed by the detonation of a uranium
bomb over Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Three days later, a plutonium
bomb exploded directly above Japan’s largest Catholic cathedral, in the
port city of Nagasaki. These explosions carried materials from the surface—
soil, vegetation and the remains of people and buildings—miles into the
sky in pillars of radioactive dust that folded and billowed, dripping streams
to the ground in what onlookers likened to huge suppurating mushrooms.
These explosions heralded the nuclear age, in which tens of thousands of
weapons were made, deployed and nearly unleashed.
During the 1950s and 1960s, conducting nuclear test explosions became
the public proof that a states’ scientists had mastered the technology to
make nuclear weapons. When even more powerful thermonuclear bombs were developed in the 1950s, some explosions yielded a force equivalent to several millions of tons of TNT. The radioactive mushroom clouds rising high above the Pacific, the United States, Kazakhstan and Siberia prompted calls for a Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).
Launched in the mid-1950s, as fallout from nuclear explosions spread around the world, the campaigns to end nuclear testing engaged nuclear and non nuclear governments and a wide cross-section of civil society, starting with doctors and scientists, women’s groups and grassroots activists. When dentists found radioactive strontium from these tests in children’s teeth and doctors and scientists raised concerns about long-lasting damage to human health and the Earth’s environment, public opposition to nuclear weapons accelerated.
In 1954, India and Japan separately called for a total ban on nuclear testing, a demand taken up by civil society as a first step toward nuclear disarmament. [But, in the 1963 timeline listed on my blog post immediately prior to this one - India is listed as actively testing nuclear weapons - in 1963 - why does that not appear in this document? - my note].
Despite widespread calls for a CTBT, efforts to negotiate were derailed time and again. In 1963, in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom finally managed to agree the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), which banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere, under water and in outer space, and so halted the most visible and environmentally dangerous explosions.2
The 1970 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)
prohibited the development of nuclear devices—and therefore any
testing—by its non-nuclear-weapon states parties, who comprised the
majority of members of the United Nations. But nuclear testing by the five nuclear-weapon states defined in the NPT (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States, which are also the P-5 permanent members of the UN Security Council) continued, mostly underground. China and France, which were further behind in their nuclear weapon programmes, refused to join the PTBT and continued testing in the atmosphere over the next decade.
Twenty years and more than 2,000 nuclear tests later, a CTBT was finally
put back on the negotiating table. The main purpose by this time was to cap
nuclear weapon development by the P-5 and apply additional constraints
on three states outside the NPT with de facto nuclear weapons programmes
(the D-3: India, Israel and Pakistan). Yet little serious consideration was
given to holding plurilateral negotiations solely among the P-5 and D-3.
The negotiations were undertaken multilaterally as a process of intentional
regime-building not only to impose legal restraints on these eight, but
because of the higher normative value and collective “ownership” associated with multilateral regimes.
By the time negotiations on a CTBT opened in the Conference on
Disarmament (CD) on 25 January 1994, the dynamics among the key negotiating states illustrated not only different views on the value of a test ban, but competing motivations for and against nuclear disarmament.
Only six states had conducted a nuclear explosion prior to 1994 when
the negotiations opened. Those in favour of a test ban argued that it
would contribute to preventing the development of new and destabilizing
weapons, protect against further environmental damage, curb proliferation
and contribute to the process of disarmament. Those that sought to prevent a test ban, by contrast, regarded nuclear weapons as conferring deterrence or stability and opposed a CTBT on grounds that it would close off options to develop or modernize nuclear arsenals and might impair the ability of the laboratories to maintain the safety and reliability of existing weapons.
Three years later, after intense and sometimes dramatic negotiations, the
CTBT was overwhelmingly adopted by the UN General Assembly. On
24 September 1996, it was opened for signature. The President of the
United States signed first, using John F. Kennedy’s pen. The foreign ministers from China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom followed, as others queued up. By 7 March 1997, when the treaty was handed over to Vienna, the host city for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), 142 states, including Iran and Israel, had signed.
In accordance with the treaty, the CTBTO’s Provisional Technical Secretariat established an international monitoring system with seismic, radionuclide, hydroacoustic and infrasound sensors located around the world, feeding
information into the International Data Centre in Vienna.
Scientists and technicians from many of the signatory states have been trained to work with these technologies, while diplomats and experts have negotiated sensitive issues such as what procedures, rights and responsibilities should go into the operations manual for the conduct of on-site inspections.
As of 31 December 2008, 180 states have signed the CTBT. Of these, 148
have ratifi ed. The CTBTO looks ready to implement the treaty, but is stuck
in legal limbo. Incompatible political objectives between some of the key
states during the final months of the negotiations resulted in treaty text
that made entry into force contingent on the signature and ratification
of 44 states with nuclear programmes or capabilities, which were listed
in an annex to the treaty. Though the CTBT is one of the best-supported
treaties in history, nine of the necessary 44 have not ratified, so the treaty is prevented from entering into force.
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/ouvrages/pdf-1-978-92-9045-194-5-en.pdf
***
This book tells the story of how the CTBT was fought for, achieved, and
also undermined. At the centre are the dynamics, objectives and tactics of
the main nuclear and non-nuclear players as the treaty was multilaterally
negotiated in the CD from January 1994 to September 1996. Particular
emphasis is given to four key elements: the campaigning that impelled the
nuclear-weapon states to the table; the zero-yield scope7 that means that
this treaty bans all nuclear explosions in all environments; the multilateral
verifi cation regime and the CTBTO; and the entry-into-force provision that
many consider the treaty’s greatest weakness. This history charts several
earlier attempts to ban testing and looks at the prenegotiation phase that
framed disarmament objectives for the 1990s and put the CTBT back onto
the negotiating table. It does not gloss over the problems encountered
and created in the process of negotiation, but seeks to understand how
they came about in order to suggest ways to overcome the obstacles now
faced by the treaty and non-proliferation regime. Bringing the story up to
date, the last two chapters consider what lessons can be learned for future
multilateral negotiations and what now needs to be done to bring the CTBT
into force.
Although efforts to get a total test ban were an enduring feature of the Cold
War, the 1994–1996 negotiations were infl uenced by broader multilateral
dynamics and concerns, making the CTBT an unmistakable product of
post-Cold War security considerations. Some things went right, and some
went wrong. The negotiations simultaneously reflected Cold War attitudes and the transition to a “new world order”, though not, perhaps, what President George H.W. Bush had envisaged in 1991.8 As attitudes toward nuclear weapons began to change with the end of the Cold War, the test ban negotiations posed new or different challenges for the P-5, the D-3 and the international community as the restraints and expectations of Cold War relations were transformed.
[ . . . ]
The chapters that follow reveal that the CTBT negotiations were essentially
a process of conflict resolution between the objectives, postures and politics of fewer than 25 of the negotiating parties, informed and infl uenced by a number of civil society actors in a range of expert and advocacy capacities.
The outcomes on scope, verifi cation and entry into force were wrought
by three levels of simultaneous policy-shaping interactions: domestic,
international and transnational. Agendas, options and interests were
contested and determined not only by government representatives, but also among national and transnational civil society actors, between government and non-governmental actors within a particular state, and also across these levels, with information exchange and links occurring between governments and domestic actors on different sides.
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/ouvrages/pdf-1-978-92-9045-194-5-en.pdf
***
Settling for the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1954 to 1963)—during which
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and United States abandoned the
search for a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but agreed to ban testing in
the atmosphere, underwater and in outer space, leaving underground
testing unregulated. During this period the fi rst anti-nuclear movements
were born, involving professionals (notably scientists and physicians) and
citizens, including women’s groups.
[etc.]
1954–1963: SETTLING FOR THE PARTIAL TEST BAN TREATY
After 1945, the United States turned down international proposals that
would have prohibited nuclear arsenals, and intensifi ed the development
and testing of new types of these weapons. Rather sooner than Washington
had anticipated, the Soviet Union conducted its fi rst atomic explosion in
1949. The nuclear arms race was launched.
The United States accelerated its programme with one underground test in 1950 and 15 above-ground explosions in 1951.
In 1952, when the United States carried out 10 nuclear tests, the United Kingdom joined the club with an atmospheric explosion on the Australian island of Monte Bello on 3 October.
In 1953, in the midst of the Korean War, US planners were shocked when the Soviet Union demonstrated its mastery of nuclear weapon technology by detonating a thermonuclear device just one year later than the United States had managed.
In March 1954 the rest of the world woke up to the dangers when a US
thermonuclear test, codenamed Castle Bravo, produced a much greater
yield than anticipated.5
The huge blast vaporized part of the Bikini Atoll and contaminated nearby islanders. It also caused severe radiation sickness and at least one death among Japanese fishermen on a nearby trawler, the misnamed Lucky Dragon, provoking protests in the Japanese parliament, which demanded a suspension of nuclear testing.
On 2 April 1954, Prime Minister Nehru of India called for an immediate “standstill agreement” on nuclear testing. Nehru’s proposal for a test ban was submitted for consideration to the UN Disarmament Commission on 29 July 1954, and from then on a CTBT became a consistent demand from the growing number of developing states that formed the Movement of Non-Aligned States, of which Nehru became a leading light.6
Meanwhile, the Cold War rivals carried out more nuclear tests—by 1958, the United States had conducted 197, the Soviet Union 103 and the United Kingdom 21.
Not all policymakers in these states supported the race to acquire nuclear weapons, however, and the mid-1950s witnessed a flurry of disarmament initiatives. The United Kingdom, together with France, put forward a three-stage plan for nuclear disarmament in June 1954. The Soviet Union submitted similar proposals in May 1955, which it followed by declaring a moratorium on nuclear testing in June 1957, later extended by General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev, on condition that no other state tested.7
By 1957, as the United Kingdom conducted its first thermonuclear
test, nuclear testing had become “a burning public issue”,8 with women’s
groups, scientists and doctors at the forefront of raising public awareness of
the dangers of radioactive fallout.
Peace-oriented organizations, such as the Nobel-prize-winning Women’s
International League for Peace and Freedom, the Fellowship of Reconciliation, and the Religious Society of Friends (the Quakers), had begun protesting against nuclear weapons soon after the fi rst bombs were detonated, but they received little attention initially.
Scientists involved in the Manhattan Project raised ethical, political and technical questions about controlling and using nuclear weapons and materials, and in 1945 some of them founded The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.9 These scientists were among the earliest non-governmental actors to integrate and publish information . . .
[etc.]
Meanwhile, three atmospheric tests in 1960 had signalled France’s entry into the nuclear club. In an increasingly toxic atmosphere of distrust and recrimination, the Ten-Nation Disarmament Committee convened in Geneva.25 It considered a joint US–Soviet initiative that set general and complete disarmament as an ultimate goal, but did not get far.26 In August 1961, the Berlin Wall went up.
President John F. Kennedy had decided to revive Eisenhower’s test-ban
initiative when he took offi ce in January 1961, but was unable to take
the issue forward in his fi rst couple of years. Using the French tests as
an excuse, fi rst the United States and then the Soviet Union broke their
moratoria and resumed testing, both with greatly accelerated programmes.
After September 1961 and throughout 1962, the Soviet Union conducted
an estimated 93 atmospheric tests, and the United States 39. During that
time the United States also experimented with 67 underground tests, while
the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom each conducted two.27
***
After 1963, nuclear testing continued out of sight. The PTBT left the nuclear scientists free to experiment with underground testing technologies, which were then refined to fuel the next three decades of the arms race with new and advanced weapons systems. (although, there were only three countries that even agreed in part to that ban as it states in the text – “Although negotiated by only three states, others were invited to accede to
the PTBT, and over a hundred did. France declined to join and carried on
testing in the atmosphere over the Pacific until 1974, when Australia and
New Zealand initiated a case in the International Court of Justice, citing
the PTBT as applicable law in their bid to halt French testing. China, which
conducted its fi rst nuclear test in 1964, also chose not to join.”)
***
[ . . . ]
With the right to nuclear energy emphasized as the primary incentive for non-nuclear weapon states, the NPT’s reflection of a prevalent belief that this technology could provide cheap, safe and clean energy for all has become increasingly problematic in the twenty-first century security environment.
The NPT’s recognition of the status quo with regard to the five defined nuclear powers led to more stringent and heavily policed obligations being imposed on the rest, whose only option in joining the NPT would be as non-nuclear weapon states. Although the ENDC played a signifi cant role in ensuring that the NPT would link disarmament with non-proliferation, the Cold War powers maintained overall control by tabling identical treaty drafts and, finally, their joint draft treaty.
One immediate consequence of the treaty’s “inequalities” was that a number of states with nuclear programmes or aspirations (for example, Argentina, Brazil, France, India, as well as several African states) abstained on the UN resolution recommending adoption of the NPT in June 1968, and—in a move that was to be echoed 28 years later with the CTBT—India publicly declared its refusal to join the NPT, on the grounds that it was discriminatory.44
***
[from - ]
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/ouvrages/pdf-1-978-92-9045-194-5-en.pdf
***
September 13, 2009
GLOBAL OCEANS NGO DIRECTORY
The Global Directory of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) working on issues of oceans, coasts and islands is a comprehensive and current information source to aid those working in the marine field in identifying partners, colleagues, and networks. Establishment of such connections will assist the public sector, academic and research sectors, and non-governmental, intergovernmental, governmental organizations in their work and will serve to further the implementation of the targets and goals pertaining to oceans, coasts, and islands developed at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. NGOs are critical partners and participants who can advance concern of oceans, coasts, and islands on international, regional, and national agendas.
The directory lists international, regional, and national NGOs, their contact information, and descriptions of their missions, activities, and history. The full directory document is available for download below. For easy searching and browsing, please refer to the Index below that has the organizations listed by region and country.
In addition, a mechanism for updating the directory is included. Those finding missing pieces in the directory or needs for revision (especially with changing contact information) can fill out a template and submit it for incorporation into the directory.
Please feel free to explore the directory and send any additions, comments, or revisions via the attached form 
to the contact person provided.
Download the NGO directory, Global Directory of Non-governmental Organizations Working on Issues of Oceans, Coasts, and Islands. 
[From - ]
http://www.globaloceans.org/directory/index.html
***
the website of the Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands. This website provides information on global developments related to oceans, coasts, and small island developing States (SIDS), particularly activities aimed at achieving oceans-related targets from the World Summit on Sustainable Development and from the Millennium Development Goals through policy analyses, multi-stakeholder dialogues, working groups, roundtables, and other approaches. 
|
Ensuring Survival, Preserving Life, and Improving Governance
May 3-7, 2010, UNESCO, Paris, France
|
 |
The 5th Global Oceans Conference will specifically address the challenges and opportunities posed by the emerging international consensus on a new climate regime (as developed through the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, Copenhagen, December 2009). Mitigation, adaptation, and financing issues will profoundly affect oceans, coasts, and small island States, which are at the frontline of climate changes. Thus, it is imperative that the importance of marine and freshwater ecosystems and resources and their vulnerability to climate change are emphasized and that integrated ecosystem-based principles and approaches be fully incorporated in the shared vision for long-term cooperative action and in the adaptation, mitigation, financing, and technology strategies and measures.
***
http://www.globaloceans.org/nippon/index.html
Information on national ocean policies emanating from the study has been placed on the global web service organized by the University of Delaware on behalf of the Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands (www.globaloceans.org).
Participants, Research Task Force on National Ocean Policies
Chair: Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain, Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy, University of Delaware
Vice-Chair: Dr. David VanderZwaag, Dalhousie University School of Law
Project Coordinator: Dr. Miriam C. Balgos, Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy, University of Delaware
Task Force members:
National ocean policies
Australia: Donna Petrachenko and Ben Addison, Department of the Environment and Water Resources
Brazil: Milton Asmus, Fundacao Universidade do Rio Grande (FURG)
Canada: David VanderZwaag, Dalhousie University; Camille Mageau, Department of Fisheries and Oceans; Sue Farlinger, Department of Fisheries and Oceans
China: Haiqing Li, State Oceanic Administration; Jiao Yongke, China Institute for Marine Affairs
India: Harsh Gupta, former Secretary, Department of Ocean Development (Retired)
Japan: Hiroshi Terashima, Ocean Policy Research Foundation, Japan; Moritaka Hayashi, Waseda University
New Zealand: Prue Taylor, Department of Planning, University of Auckland
Norway: Terje Lobach, Directorate of Fisheries; Alf Hakon Hoel, University of Tromso
Philippines: Robert Jara, Department of Environment and Natural Resources; Jay Batongbacal, Philippine Center for Marine Affairs, Inc.
Portugal: Mario Ruivo, Intersectorial Oceanographic Commission, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education; Tiago Pitta e Cunha,Cabinet of the Commissioner for Fisheries and Maritime Affairs, European Commission; Francisca Menezes-Ferreira, Intersectorial Oceanographic Commission and Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, Portugal
Russian Federation: Yuriy M. Kolochkov and Yuriy Mikhaylichenko, Ministry of Economic Development and Trade; Valentin P. Sinetsky and Genrikh K. Voitolovsky, Council for Study of Productive Forces
United States: Biliana Cicin-Sain, University of Delaware
United Kingdom: John Roberts, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), UK; Hance Smith, Cardiff University
Vietnam: Nguyen Chu Hoi, Ministry of Fisheries; Hoang Ngoc Giao, Law School, Vietnam National University
Regional ocean policies
Africa region: Ali Mohamed, New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD); Indu Hewawasam, Africa Region, World Bank
South Pacific: Cristelle Pratt and Mary Power, SOPAC
European Union: John Richardson, Directorate-General for Fisheries and Maritime Affairs, European Commission
Connection between national ocean policies and international ocean agreements: Jon Van Dyke, University of Hawaii School of Law
Advisors, Research Task Force on National Ocean Policies
Case Study Guides
[And - ]
A book on Integrated Regional and National Ocean Policies: Comparative Practices and Future Prospects, resulting from the work reported at TOPS 2005: The Ocean Policy Summit will be published by the United Nations University Press in 2008. The book, which brings together the experiences of 18 countries and 4 regions in integrated ocean policy, includes 23 chapters authored by 53 authors.
[From - ]
The Nippon Foundation
RESEARCH TASK FORCE ON NATIONAL OCEAN POLICIES
Part of the Nippon Foundation’s International Ocean Governance Network
Background
The Nippon Foundation has organized the International Ocean Governance Network (IOGN) to enhance education and build capacity in ocean governance around the world. A first step in the creation of the Network has been the establishment of the Education Task Force to determine the current status of education and training in the ocean governance field.
The Network will also carry out collaborative, cross-national research on a number of important topics in ocean governance, to be chosen periodically through consultation among Network members. Research results, such as papers and reports, will be used for capacity building purposes (e.g., in enhancing ocean governance curricula of university teaching programs and specialized courses for public officials), as well as to assist countries in promoting best practices in the field.
The Research Task Force on National Ocean Policies, the first research activity of the Network, aimed to analyze emerging patterns of national ocean policies, share experiences, draw lessons, and develop guidance on ‘best practices.’
Development of National Ocean Policies Around the World
While most coastal nations of the world already have a variety of sectoral policies in place to manage different uses of the ocean (such as shipping, fishing, and oil and gas development), it has only been in the last decade that coastal nations have undertaken concerted efforts to articulate and implement an integrated vision for the governance of ocean areas under their jurisdiction-to harmonize existing uses and laws, to foster sustainable development of ocean areas, to protect biodiversity and vulnerable resources and ecosystems, and to coordinate the actions of the many government agencies that are typically involved in oceans affairs.
This is a very encouraging development, responding as it does to the reality of serious conflicts of use in most national ocean zones and to the prescriptions articulated in both the Law of the Sea (“the problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need to be considered as a whole“), and in the 1992 Earth Summit (given the interrelationship among uses and processes in the coast and ocean, ocean and coastal governance must be “integrated in content and precautionary and anticipatory in ambit“).
Purposes of the Research Task Force
The Nippon Foundation Research Task Force on National Ocean Policies brought together academic experts and government officials working on national ocean policies from around the globe for the following purposes:
Project Duration
February 2004 to September 2006.
http://www.globaloceans.org/nippon/index.html
***
In late 2006, the Global Forum began a strategic planning effort to chart strategic activities which could be undertaken together with governments, the United Nations, NGOs, industry, and scientific groups to advance the global oceans agenda over the next ten-year period, to 2016. The first step was the development of a draft calendar of major events and opportunities for policy decisions (by the United Nations and other parties) related to oceans, coasts, small island developing States, and freshwater taking place over the next decade, as well as tentative Global Forum policy analyses and multistakeholder workshops/global conferences in response to and/or in anticipation of such opportunities. The next steps in the strategic planning are to be carried out through 17 working groups, as explained below.
Strategic Planning to Advance the Oceans Agenda, 2006-2016, Working Groups.
Draft calendar of major oceans events and opportunities for policy decisions.
Recommendations for Action Emanating from the 4th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands.
Invitation to Collaborate in the Global Forum Programme of Work 2009-2012.
Final Program: Global Ocean Policy Day.
Volume of Policy Briefs on Oceans and Climate Change.
Co-Chairs’ Statement from Global Ocean Policy Day.
Submission to the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the UNFCCC.
ORGANIZATION OF GLOBAL FORUM WORKING GROUPS
Working Groups have or are being organized on the following major themes, which are based on the WSSD targets on oceans, coasts, and small island developing States. Working Groups are also to consider the overarching, cross-cutting issues, as explained below.
Theme 1. Achieving Ecosystem Management and Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management by 2010
Theme 2. Climate, Oceans, and Security
Theme 3. Governance of Marine Ecosystems and Uses in Areas Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction
Working Groups on Overarching, Cross-Cutting Issues
The themes and overarching, cross-cutting issues are shown in the Working Group Matrix.
The results of Working Group deliberations and a draft Global Oceans Agenda for 2006-2016 will be presented at:
–The 4th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, to be held in Hanoi, Vietnam, on April 7-11, 2008
–The World Ocean Conference, Manado, Indonesia, May 11-15, 2009
–Other appropriate international venues
Working Group Documents
Draft Media Outreach Strategy and Public Education Plan.
Working Group Document on Marine Biodiversity and Networks of MPAs.
Working Group Document on Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Working Group Documents on Climate, Oceans, and Security
[From - ]
http://www.globaloceans.org/planning/index.html
***
The Center serves as the Secretariat for the Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands. The Forum serves as a platform for cross-sectoral information sharing and dialogue on issues affecting oceans, coasts, and islands, with the common goal of attaining the sustainable development of these areas. The aim of the Forum is the improvement of global, regional, and national policies related to oceans, coasts, and islands.
The Global Forum 2005-2007 Agenda is available at: http://www.globaloceans.org/GlobalForumAgenda.pdf 
For further information visit the forum website at:
http://www.globaloceans.org
Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy
301 Robinson Hall, University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716 USA
Phone: 1-302-831-8086; Fax: 1-302-831-3668
[From this website above -]
Mid-Atlantic Regional Ocean Forum:
Challenges and Opportunities
The Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy at the University of Delaware, in collaboration with The Nature Conservancy, Monmouth University, the Joint Ocean Commission Initiative, the Coastal States Organization, and the Environmental Law Institute, co-organized the Mid-Atlantic Regional Ocean Forum, held December 1-2, 2008 at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, MD. Participants included ocean and coastal experts from federal and state agencies, non-governmental organizations, industry, the private sector, and academia, representing diverse backgrounds and ideas. The Forum focused on four objectives: promote dialogue and exchange of information among state, federal, industry, academic, and nongovernmental participants about regional ocean issues; clarify issues and stakeholder perspectives regarding potential benefits from coordinated actions and regional approaches; assess the status of regional ocean research, mapping, and information systems and tools; and share lessons learned from other regional initiatives and pilot projects and identify avenues for continued dialogue, future information sharing, and cooperation among Mid-Atlantic entities and stakeholders. Panels were organized around a number of themes, including Economic and Ecosystem Values of the Mid-Atlantic Region, Applying Ecosystem-Based Approaches and Marine Spatial Planning in the Mid-Atlantic Region, Climate Change in the Mid-Atlantic, Regional Offshore Energy, and Sustainability of Living Marine Resources and Habitats. Subsequent breakout sessions offered an opportunity for further discussions on the challenges facing the Mid-Atlantic region and allowed participants to identify possible next steps to improve information sharing and increase cooperation within the Mid-Atlantic region on priority issues. (continued)
Highlighting UD’s Role in Global Education,
UD Center Organizes International Oceans Conference in Vietnam
The Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy at the University of Delaware organized the Fourth Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands: Advancing Ecosystem Management and Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management by 2010 in the Context of Climate Change, which took place April 7-11, 2008 in Hanoi, Vietnam. The conference was hosted by the Vietnamese government at the highest policy level and assessed essential issues in the governance of the world’s oceans, with a focus on moving toward an ecosystem-based and integrated approach to oceans governance at national, regional, and global levels. For the first time, a concerted effort was made to bring oceans policy together with climate change issues, which, as indicated in the 2007 report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change will have profound effects on ecosystems and coastal populations around the world, especially among the poorest people on Earth and in small island developing States. (continued)
**
Fourth Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands set April 7-11, 2008 in Hanoi, Vietnam
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| For more information on the Conference, please visit the Conference web site at:
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International Network of ICM Practitioners: A Partnership Outcome of the WSSDAdvancing the Use of Indicators for Integrated Coastal ManagementAssessment of Progress Achieved on Oceans and Coastal Management at the Global Level since the 1992 Earth SummitStudy of Integrated Coastal Management in Latin America and the Caribbean for the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) (1999-2000)Book on Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and PracticesSpecial Issues of Ocean & Coastal Management on Integrated Coastal ManagementCapacity Building in Integrated Coastal Management |
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Regional Governance WorkshopPerspective on Coastal Governance for a Coordinated and Comprehensive U.S. National Ocean PolicyBook on U.S. National Ocean and Coastal PolicyStudies of the Performance of State Coastal ProgramsNational Dialogues on Ocean and Coastal PolicyOcean and Coastal Policy Roundtable (2001 to present) |
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Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands2003 Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands: Mobilizing for Implementation of the Commitments Made at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentCMP at the World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentThe 2001 Global Conference on Oceans and Coasts at Rio+10Progress achieved on oceans and coasts’ 1996 review by the UN Commission on Sustainable Development and 1997 review by the UN General Assembly |
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Offshore Aquaculture Policy Study (1999-2001)Developing Operational Guidelines for the Offshore Aquaculture Policy Framework (2001-2003) |
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Study on Marine Biotechnology PolicyStudy of Benefits from Sea Grant Funded Research on Marine Biotechnology (1999) |
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Toward an Ocean Plan for DelawareImproving the Management of Coastal Ecosystems through Management Analyses and Remote Sensing/GIS Applications: Experiences from the Delaware Region |
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Coastal and Marine TourismFishery Conflicts in the Galapagos Islands, EcuadorStudies of the Environmental Technology IndustryComparative Studies of Common Property Resources Management |
http://www.ceoe.udel.edu/cmp/pages/research.html
[From - ]
University of Delaware
College of Marine and Earth Sciences -
Gerard J. Mangone Center for Marine Policy
301 Robinson Hall, University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716 USA
Phone: 1-302-831-8086; Fax: 1-302-831-3668
***
http://www.globaloceans.org/icm/unep-gpa.html
~ Joint ICM-GPA Web Page ~
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities
The United Nations Environment Programme GPA Coordination Office in The Hague, The Netherlands, coordinates the tasks and activities of UNEP as secretariat of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA).
This Global Programme of Action was adopted by 108 Governments, and the European Commission, in Washington D.C. in 1995. The role of the secretariat, in close partnership with relevant organizations, is to:
* promote and facilitate implementation of the GPA at the national level;
* promote and facilitate implementation at the regional and sub-regional level through, in particular, a revitalization of the UNEP Regional Seas Programme; and
* play a catalytic role with other organizations and institutions in implementation of the GPA at the international level. The development of this new addition is in progress.
GPA News Forum
http://www.gpa.unep.org/bin/php/news/index.php
A direct link to the GPA News Forum. In this page you will find news related to the implementation of the GPA and also intend to stimulate discussion on topics of interest to the GPA community.
Through the GPA News Forum you will be able to quickly and widely distribute information on recent developments relating to marine and coastal degradation and the management of land-based activities. You will be able to share information on new technologies, best practices, new policy approaches, and successful – or not so successful – partnerships, and learn from the experiences of others. The GPA Coordination Office will keep you informed about recent GPA-related activities at the national, regional, and global level. The GPA News Forum will also provide you with information on relevant meetings, capacity-building possibilities, recent publications, and progress in key or pilot projects.
UNEP GPA Clearing-House Document Library
http://www.gpa.unep.org/bin/php/dl/index.php
A site which contain documents mainly produced by the GPA Coordination Office or documents pertaining to the GPA itself. However, as the clearing-house is developed, documents pertaining to the implementation of the GPA by other partners will also be featured here.
Documents are made available in HTML (View On-Line), in Original format (Word 97), in ZIP format (compressed) and in PDF format.
Legislation
http://www.globaloceans.org/icm/index.html
This page provides links to global and regional general and specific sources of information on the protection of the marine environment and links to regional legal instruments (conventions and protocols) addressing LBS pollution and the relevant secretariats.
GPA and ICM
http://www.gpa.unep.org/bin/php/cm/coastal.php
The process of policy setting for integrated environmental management is cyclic, evolves in time and can be described in a number of phases. Each cycle addresses problem identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation.
These elements in ICAM will be addressed in the GPA clearing-house. Tools, resource-books and guidelines will facilitate and support national and regional implementation activities
http://www.globaloceans.org/icm/unep-gpa.html
***
Strategic Oceans Planning to 2016
Nippon Foundation Task Force on National Ocean Policies
The Ocean Policy Summit Lisbon October 2005
Small Island Developing States
Capacity Development
Working Group on High Seas
Working Group on Freshwater to Oceans
UNEP/GPA IGR-2
Ocean Donors Roundtable
Business and Industry Leaders Roundtable
Informal Ministerial Roundtables
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September 10, 2009
http://www.comcast.net/articles/news-national/20090909/US.Courthouse.Kickbacks/
ALLENTOWN, Pa. — Federal prosecutors have ratcheted up their pursuit of two former Pennsylvania judges accused of taking $2.8 million in kickbacks to place youth offenders in private detention centers.
[. . . ]
The indictment accused Ciavarella and Conahan of extorting kickbacks from the former co-owner of PA Child Care LLC and its sister facility, Western PA Child Care.
Conahan shut down Luzerne County’s existing juvenile detention facility in 2002, saying it was unsafe. In 2004, the county entered a 20-year, $58 million agreement with PA Child Care to lease its new Pittston Township facility.
The indictment said that Ciavarella, as juvenile court judge, sent youths to PA Child Care and later to its sister facility while he was accepting payments. To keep the prison beds full, Ciavarella routinely deprived young defendants of their right to counsel, ordered juveniles into detention even when probation officers didn’t recommend it, and pressured probation officials to change their recommendations, the indictment said.
[ . . . ]
Former PA Child Care owner Robert Powell, a lawyer, pleaded guilty July 1 to paying kickbacks to the judges. Prominent construction company owner Robert K. Mericle, who built the detention centers, pleaded guilty earlier this month to a charge of withholding information on a crime.
[etc.]
(from Associated Press)
http://www.comcast.net/articles/news-national/20090909/US.Courthouse.Kickbacks/
[And, there's the US health care system / prison for private profit / mental health and "behavioral" health modification systems / pharmaceutical based cooperation cocktails for behavior modification systems at work as it has been for the last thirty years - and they want to make that more pervasive, rather than less, rather than fixing it, rather than making it right? Apparently.]
***
My Note -
I listened to the President and the Congressional address about health care last night at least three times to hear it all. I listened to it carefully and it is obvious that both the President and the Legislature are overstepping the bounds of their authority. But, apparently -
They plan to extort a required tax against every living, breathing citizen of the United States, exempting illegal immigrants of course who gets to keep all of the money they make here. And, that tax will be put into the profit glut of every insurance company in America – that’s what it means to require every citizen to have health insurance. It denies the freedom of choice, it is unfair taxation going into private hands, it is illegal and it will require each and every citizen, business and child born into this country to pay to be alive in the United States of America.
At the same time, doctors and hospitals and pharmaceutical companies will be exempt from accountability when their all too typical malpractice occurs. And yet, we all must be registered with some health care insurance provider and pay each month for each member of our families, our children, ourselves and our businesses to be covered by their services without recourse, simply because we are alive and citizens of the United States. They may as well have just taken 50% of everyone’s income off the top in the first place and provided something in return for it. That would be less than the percentage we are paying now, to get virtually nothing but corruption and Nazi Germany style oppressions and tyrannies across virtually every state and every administration regardless of political party.
It seemed a little off to me that, the people in politics whose funding comes directly from the big insurance companies, health industries and pharmaceutical companies, would be pursuing “health care reform.” Well, now it is obvious that there is no reform in it. The only pursuit they have been making is to charge a tax per head extorted from the freedoms of our citizenship here in order to line the pockets of their campaign contributors.
Now, when any person gives birth to a child in the United States of America, they will be registered and stamped for citizenship with a required registration to a health insurance provider which will legally require those parents and that individual to pay to those insurance revenue streams for every day that they are alive in the United States of America or elsewhere as long as their membership as a citizen of the US is maintained.
And, there will be no recourse against a health system, doctors and industries that have been pervasively known for causing more harm than good on a regular basis, so consistently, in fact as to be unimaginable. Every day across America, health care industry professionals cause harms which were preventable and inexcusable. Nothing in this bill fixes that. The members of Congress and the Administration have no intention of fixing that.
Apparently, their only intention was to jeopardize our freedoms, our rights, our inalienable rights, our basis of freedom and our basis of citizenship. Also, apparently they don’t like the limitations of their power guaranteed by the Constitution to prevent their overstepping the bounds of that oath of office they took. It certainly overstepped those bounds when they decided to impose a privately profitable “tax” called “health care insurance” on every citizen and every business by virtue of their existence.
And then, it begs the question – just as with auto insurance which is required of every vehicle and driver but is no more than a tax on the right to drive in a world that demands personal transportation in order to work, to have a business, or to make a living – what happens when people don’t have the money to continue paying those health insurance premiums? Then do they lose the right of citizenship in the United States, despite being born here, taken the oath of citizenship here, being a consummated and valuable member of the citizens of the United States and despite being guaranteed that citizenship by the Constitution?
Will that be done in the same way the car insurance companies send license and personal information to the State Office of No Insurance to legally dismiss our drivers’ license, as is done now? Will they take away the rights to our own children and to our own citizenship, beyond what they’ve already been doing in that arena through health and human services / social services, simply because they are born without the required registrations and payments to the health insurance industries and we failed to “sign them up for it” and remit those payments to them?
How about this – what if we directly and immediately take to task those insurance companies as we should’ve done in the first place. They are the ones who have driven up the costs of health care beyond all measure. They are the ones who have tolerated shoddy health services, malpractice, incompetence, dispassionately destroyed the health of people for profit motives, paid themselves like kings and lobbied to get out of any accountability to the public and their customers. They are the ones that need to be changed. We sure don’t need to keep paying them to continue slaughtering us. They’ve done enough damage for several lifetimes and now they intend to further that profit machine to serve their own interests to an even greater and more oppressive extent. They are inherently evil – why give them even one more dime to use to do more damage?
- cricketdiane, 09-10-09
****
And, oh by the way, they plan on robbing over $500 Billion dollars from the social security system, Medicare and Medicaid funds that we have all paid into the government trusts for it, under the guise of this “health care reform.” That isn’t their money and is not free money, but every time they can find an excuse to get their hands on it – even paying the interest on the national debt out of it – there they go without anyone saying a word. And they are doing it again. It was written into the first bill and it will be found in the second one that will come to vote. Neither Congress nor the office of the President has any right given to them by the Constitution and by our laws, to levy a tax against every citizen for the right to be alive. And neither do they have the power offered to them which legislates health care to every person under their jurisdiction. It denies the fundamental rights and freedoms we are guaranteed.
Looking at how easily those judges in the story above, denied the rights and opportunities of those who were to be protected by them and did so with no more conscience about right and wrong than their insatiable desire for money could offer, I am horrified at the thought that more of that kind of power would be put into the hands of judges, insurance companies, government agency officials, states, health care businesses, prison for profit businesses, mental health agencies and industries or pharmaceutical companies / lawyers / academics / legislatures / state agencies / health and human services / hospitals / or in fact, anybody.
***
For the same reason that Congress could not legislate the salaries or bonuses of bankers and financiers, nor could limit or restrict them legally – they also cannot legally legislate health care. It is outside the authority of the President and the Congress, which constitutes a taking and assuming powers that do not legally belong to them. Anything they do in that process by exceeding their bounds of authority and doing it in that way will contest the foundation of authority they have been granted and break the validity of the legal and consensual premise of that authority.
***
It is a shame that so many shed their blood and gave their lives to insure our democracy, freedoms, individual rights and noble ideals when the real enemies of those tenets were in our businesses and seated in our own government all along, both of whom were so quick to disregard them, and found it painlessly easy to disavow the importance of those core foundations, then undermine them as a possibility guaranteed to everyone or, in fact, to anyone.
- cricketdiane
***
Medical malpractice cases from one law firm – these aren’t small negligence cases that are being pursued – it is obscene how far the health care system and health care industries have strayed away from offering health -
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levin_&_Perconti
***
A 2004 study of medical malpractice claims in the United States examining primary care malpractice found that though incidence of negligence in hospitals produced a greater proportion of severe outcomes, the total number of errors and deaths due to errors were greater for outpatient settings. No single medical condition was associated with more than five percent of all negligence claims, and one-third of all claims were the result of misdiagnosis.[6]
A recent study by Healthgrades found that an average of 195,000 hospital deaths in each of the years 2000, 2001 and 2002 in the U.S. were due to potentially preventable medical errors. Researchers examined 37 million patient records and applied the mortality and economic impact models developed by Dr. Chunliu Zhan and Dr. Marlene R. Miller in a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in October 2003. The Zhan and Miller study supported the Institute of Medicine’s (IOM) 1999 report conclusion, which found that medical errors caused up to 98,000 deaths annually and should be considered a national epidemic.[7] Some researchers questioned the accuracy of the 1999 IOM study, reporting both significant subjectivity in determining which deaths were “avoidable” or due to medical error and an erroneous assumption that 100% of patients would have survived if optimal care had been provided. A 2001 study in JAMA estimated that only 1 in 10,000 patients admitted to the hospital would have lived for 3 months or more had “optimal” care been provided.[8]
A 2006 follow-up to the 1999 Institute of Medicine study found that medication errors are among the most common medical mistakes, harming at least 1.5 million people every year. According to the study, 400,000 preventable drug-related injuries occur each year in hospitals, 800,000 in long-term care settings, and roughly 530,000 among Medicare recipients in outpatient clinics. The report stated that these are likely to be conservative estimates. In 2000 alone, the extra medical costs incurred by preventable drug related injuries approximated $887 million – and the study looked only at injuries sustained by Medicare recipients, a subset of clinic visitors. None of these figures take into account lost wages and productivity or other costs.[9]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_malpractice
 |
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. |
Medical malpractice is professional negligence by act or omission by a health care provider in which care provided deviates from accepted standards of practice in the medical community and causes injury or death to the patient. Standards and regulations for medical malpractice vary by country and jurisdiction within countries.
***
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. |
Medical error is an inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis and/or treatment of a disease; injury; syndrome; behavior; infection or other ailment.
In the U.S., medical errors are estimated to result in 44,000 to 98,000 unnecessary deaths and 1,000,000 excess injuries each year.[1][2] One older extrapolation suggests ‘180,000 people die each year partly as a result of iatrogenic injury, the equivalent of three jumbo-jet crashes every 2 days’.[3] It is estimated that in a typical 100 to 300 bed hospital in the United States, excess costs of $1,000,000 to $3,000,000 attributable to prolonged stays and complications just due to medication errors occur yearly.
However, medical error definitions are subject to debate, as there are many types of medical error from minor to major,[4] and causality is often poorly determined.[5] The Health Grades study statistics, based on AHRQ MedPAR data, were based on administrative records, not clinical records, and largely overlooked multi-causality of outcomes.[6]
Medical care is frequently compared adversely to aviation: while many of the factors which lead to errors in both fields are similar, aviation’s error management protocols are regarded as much more effective.[7]
Experts estimate that as many as 98,000 people die in any given year from medical errors that occur in hospitals. That’s more than die from motor vehicle accidents, breast cancer, or AIDS–three causes that receive far more public attention. Indeed, more people die annually from medication errors than from workplace injuries. Add the financial cost to the human tragedy, and medical error easily rises to the top ranks of urgent, widespread public problems.
In 2000, The Institute of Medicine released “To Err Is Human”, which asserts that the problem in medical errors is not bad people in health care–it is that good people are working in bad systems that need to be made safer.[8]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_error
***
The terms iatrogenesis and iatrogenic artifact refer to adverse effects or complications caused by or resulting from medical treatment or advice. In addition to harmful consequences of actions by physicians, iatrogenesis can also refer to actions by other healthcare professionals, such as psychologists, therapists, pharmacists, nurses, dentists, and others. Iatrogenesis is not restricted to conventional medicine and can also result from complementary and alternative medicine treatments.
Some iatrogenic artifacts are clearly defined and easily recognized, such as a complication following a surgical procedure. Some are less obvious and can require significant investigation to identify, such as complex drug interactions. And, some conditions have been described for which it is unknown, unproven or even controversial whether they be iatrogenic or not; this has been encountered particularly with regard to various psychological and chronic pain conditions. Research in these areas is ongoing.
Causes of iatrogenesis include medical error, negligence, and the adverse effects or interactions of prescription drugs. In the United States, from 120,000 to 225,000 deaths per year may be attributed in some part to iatrogenesis.[1]
Contents |
In his 1861 book, Semmelweis presented evidence to demonstrate that the advent of pathological anatomy in Vienna in 1823 (left vertical line) was correlated to the incidence of fatal childbed fever there. Onset of chlorine handwash in 1847 marked by vertical line at far right. Rates for Dublin maternity hospital, which had no pathological anatomy, is shown for comparison (view rates).
Etymologically, the term means "brought forth by a healer" (iatros means healer in Greek); as such, in its earlier forms, it could refer to good or bad effects.
Since the time of Hippocrates, the potential damaging effect of a healer's actions has been recognized. The old mandate "first do no harm" (primum non nocere) is an important clause of medical ethics, and iatrogenic illness or death caused purposefully, or by avoidable error or negligence on the healer's part became a punishable offense in many civilizations.
The transfer of pathogens from the autopsy room to maternity patients, leading to shocking historical mortality rates of puerperal fever at maternity institutions in the 1800s, was a major iatrogenic catastrophe of that time. The infection mechanism was first identified by Ignaz Semmelweis.
With the development of scientific medicine in the 20th century, it could be expected that iatrogenic illness or death would be more easily avoided. Antiseptics, anesthesia, antibiotics, and better surgical techniques have been developed to decrease iatrogenic mortality.
Examples of iatrogenesis:
Iatrogenic conditions do not necessarily result from medical errors, such as mistakes made in surgery, or the prescription or dispensing of the wrong therapy, such as a drug. In fact, intrinsic and sometimes adverse effects of a medical treatment are iatrogenic; for example, radiation therapy or chemotherapy, due to the needed aggressiveness of the therapeutic agents, frequent effects are hair loss, anemia, vomiting, nausea, brain damage etc. The loss of functions resulting from the required removal of a diseased organ is also considered iatrogenesis, e.g., iatrogenic diabetes brought on by removal of all or part of the pancreas.
In other situations, actual negligence or faulty procedures are involved, such as when drug prescriptions are handwritten by the pharmacotherapist. It has been proven that poor handwriting can lead a pharmacist to dispense the wrong drug, worsening a patient's condition.[citation needed]
A very common iatrogenic effect is caused by drug interaction, i.e., when pharmacotherapists fail to check for all medications a patient is taking and prescribe new ones which interact agonistically or antagonistically (potentiate or decrease the intended therapeutic effect). Significant morbidity and mortality is caused because of this. Adverse reactions, such as allergic reactions to drugs, even when unexpected by pharmacotherapists, are also classified as iatrogenic.
The evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is iatrogenic as well.Finland M (1979). “Emergence of antibiotic resistance in hospitals, 1935-1975″. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1 (1): 4–22. PMID 45521. Bacteria strains resistant to antibiotics have evolved in response to the overprescription of antibiotic drugs.
Certain drugs are toxic in their own right in therapeutic doses because of their mechanism of action. Alkylating antineoplastic agents, for example, cause DNA damage, which is more harmful to cancer cells than regular cells. However, alkylation causes severe side effects and is actually carcinogenic in its own right, potentially leading to the development of secondary tumors. Similarly arsenic-based medications like melarsoprol for trypanosomiasis cause arsenic poisoning.
A related term is nosocomial, which refers to an iatrogenic illness due to or acquired during hospital care, such as an infection. Sometimes, hospital staff can be unwitting transmitters of nosocomial infections (in one of such instances, many hospitals have forbidden physicians to wear long ties, because they transmitted bacteria from bed to bed when the doctor swept the tie over the patients when bending over them).[citation needed] The most common iatrogenic illness in this realm, however, are nosocomial infections caused by unclean or inadequately sterilized hypodermic needles, surgical instruments, and the use of ungloved hands to perform medical or dental procedures.[citation needed] For example, a number of hepatitis B and C infections caused by dentists and surgeons on their patients have been documented.[citation needed] One of the most horrid cases of massive death caused in recent times by iatrogenic infection has been reported on several bush hospitals in Zaire and Sudan, where the intensive reuse of poorly sterilized syringes and needles by nurses spread the Ebola virus, probably causing hundreds of deaths. [2]
In psychology, iatrogenesis can occur due to misdiagnosis (including diagnosis with a false condition as was the case of hystero-epilepsy[3]).
Conditions hypothesized to be partially or completely iatrogenic include bipolar disorder,[4] dissociative identity disorder,[5][3] fibromyalgia,[6] somatoform disorder,[7] chronic fatigue syndrome,[7] posttraumatic stress disorder,[8] substance abuse,[9] antisocial youths[10] and others[11] though research is equivocal for each condition. The degree of association of any particular condition with iatrogenesis is unclear and in some cases controversial.
The over-diagnosis of psychological conditions is due to clinical dependence upon subjective criteria. The assignment of pathological nomenclature is rarely a benign process and can easily rise to the level of emotional iatrogenesis, especially when no alternatives outside of the diagnostic naming process have been considered.[citation needed]
Medical treatment does not only have an effect on the mind and body of patients but also on their wallet. Meessen et al used the term “Iatrogenic Poverty” to describe impoverishment induced by medical care[12]. Impoverishment is described for households exposed to catastrophic health expenditure[13] or to hardship financing[14]. Every year, worldwide, over 100,000 households fall into poverty due to health care expenses. Especially in countries in economic transition, the willingness to pay for health care is increasing and the supply side does not stay behind and develops very fast. But, the regulatory and protective capacity in those countries is often lagging behind. Patients easily fall in a vicious circle of illness, ineffective therapies, consumption of savings, indebtedness, sale of productive assets and eventually poverty.
Iatrogenesis is a major phenomenon, and a severe risk to patients. A study carried out in 1981 more than one-third of illnesses of patients in a university hospital were iatrogenic, nearly one in ten were considered major, and in 2% of the patients, the iatrogenic disorder ended in death. Complications were most strongly associated with exposure to drugs and medications.[15] In another study, the main factors leading to problems were inadequate patient evaluation, lack of monitoring and follow-up, and failure to perform necessary tests.[16]
In the United State alone, recorded deaths per year (2000):
Based on these figures, 225,000 deaths per year constitutes the third leading cause of death in the United States, after deaths from heart disease and cancer. Also, there is a wide margin between these numbers of deaths and the next leading cause of death (cerebrovascular disease).
This totals 225,000 deaths per year from iatrogenic causes. In interpreting these numbers, note the following:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrogenesis
***
My Note -
In medical journals and other statistical analysis portals / academics / study / dissemination – the terms can be Iatrogenesis, as above, or medical error, or pharmaceutical error or who knows how many other things. It seems to be divided up rather than placed in the same category by the same terms where an overview of the problem and of the pervasiveness of the problems would be self-evident.
cricketdiane, 2009
***
An adverse drug reaction (abbreviated ADR) is an expression that describes harm associated with the use of given medications at a normal dose[1]. The meaning of this expression differs from the meaning of “side effect”, as this last expression might also imply that the effects can be beneficial.[2] The study of ADRs is the concern of the field known as pharmacovigilance.
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ADRs may be classified by e.g. cause and severity.
Types A and B were proposed in the 1970s,[3] and the other types were proposed subsequently when the first two proved insufficient to classify ADRs.[4]
The American Food and Drug Administration defines a serious adverse event as one when the patient outcome is one of the following:[5]
Severity is a point on an arbitrary scale of intensity of the adverse event in question. The terms “severe” and “serious” when applied to adverse events are technically very different. They are easily confused but can not be used interchangeably, require care in usage.
A headache is severe, if it causes intense pain. There are scales like “visual analog scale” that help us assess the severity. On the other hand, a headache can hardly ever be serious, unless it also satisfies the criteria for seriousness listed above.
While no official scale exists yet to communicate overall drug risk, the iGuard Drug Risk Rating System is a five color rating scale similar to the Homeland Security Advisory System:[6]
Adverse effects may be local, i.e. limited to a certain location, or systemic, where a medication has caused adverse effects throughout the systemic circulation.
For instance, some ocular antihypertensives cause systemic effects[7], although they are administered locally as eye drops, since a fraction escapes to the systemic circulation.
As research better explains the biochemistry of drug use, fewer ADRs are Type B and more are Type A. Common mechanisms are:
The risk of drug interactions is increased with polypharmacy.
**
Various diseases, especially those that cause renal or hepatic insufficiency, may alter drug metabolism. Resources are available that report changes in a drug’s metabolism due to disease states.[8]
Abnormal drug metabolism may be due to inherited factors of either Phase I oxidation or Phase II conjugation.[9][10] Pharmacogenomics is the study of the inherited basis for abnormal drug reactions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_drug_reaction
Many countries have official bodies that monitor drug safety and reactions. On an international level, the WHO runs the Uppsala Monitoring Centre, and the European Union runs the European Medicines Agency (EMEA). In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for monitoring post-marketing studies.
A recent study by Healthgrades found that an average of 195,000 hospital deaths in each of the years 2000, 2001 and 2002 in the U.S. were due to potentially preventable medical errors. Researchers examined 37 million patient records and applied the mortality and economic impact models developed by Dr. Chunliu Zhan and Dr. Marlene R. Miller in a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in October 2003.
The Zhan and Miller study supported the Institute of Medicine’s (IOM) 1999 report conclusion, which found that medical errors caused up to 98,000 deaths annually and should be considered a national epidemic.[7] Some researchers questioned the accuracy of the 1999 IOM study, reporting both significant subjectivity in determining which deaths were “avoidable” or due to medical error and an erroneous assumption that 100% of patients would have survived if optimal care had been provided. A 2001 study in JAMA estimated that only 1 in 10,000 patients admitted to the hospital would have lived for 3 months or more had “optimal” care been provided.[8]
A 2006 follow-up to the 1999 Institute of Medicine study found that medication errors are among the most common medical mistakes, harming at least 1.5 million people every year. According to the study, 400,000 preventable drug-related injuries occur each year in hospitals, 800,000 in long-term care settings, and roughly 530,000 among Medicare recipients in outpatient clinics. The report stated that these are likely to be conservative estimates.
In 2000 alone, the extra medical costs incurred by preventable drug related injuries approximated $887 million – and the study looked only at injuries sustained by Medicare recipients, a subset of clinic visitors. None of these figures take into account lost wages and productivity or other costs.[9]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_malpractice
***
Wednesday, April 9, 2008; 12:00 AM
TUESDAY, April 8 (HealthDay News) — From 2004 through 2006, patient safety errors resulted in 238,337 potentially preventable deaths of U.S. Medicare patients and cost the Medicare program $8.8 billion, according to the fifth annual Patient Safety in American Hospitals Study.
[etc.]
Of the 270,491 deaths that occurred among patients who experienced one or more patient safety incidents, 238,337 were potentially preventable, the researchers said.If all hospitals performed at the level of the top-ranked hospitals, about 220,106 patient safety incidents and 37,214 patient deaths could have been avoided, and about $2 billion could have been saved.
[ . . . ]
Starting Oct. 1, the federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services will stop reimbursing hospitals for the treatment of eight major preventable errors, including objects left in the body after surgery and certain kinds of post-surgical infections.
***
My Note -
The health care reform being legislated currently only includes preventing people from suing doctors, hospitals, pharmaceuticals and to legally require every citizen to have health insurance which amounts to a tax per head levied and extorted from every American in order to exist anywhere in this country. Not only is it not going to solve the health care crisis in this country, it will continue to contribute to the problems we already endure and allow them to get worse. Medicine and profits are not compatible by any sensibilities of conscience and good health.
- cricketdiane, 09-13-09
***
September 10, 2009
Enter your email address below to subscribe to our Latest News email alerts.
Please be advised that the revised Model EPSC with the updated Article 34 is now on the website.
—-
Please be advised that the revised Terms of Reference, inclusive of the updated Bid Bond form, is now on the website.
—-
Please be advised that the final bid documents have been published.
—-
Please be advised that the Data Package will be available in the following formats:
For more information on the Data Package and payment information, please refer to Chapter 2,. . .
On the basis of further information and documents received, the Ministry of Mines’ decision 28 June 2009 related to Nations Petroleum is amended and Nations Petroleum is qualified to bid for the Jangalikalan, Juma-Bashikurd and Kashkari blocks on offer during this First Afghan Bidding Round. The list of pre-qualified companies is updated as follows:
Addax Petroleum
Nations Petroleum
Oil & Gas Development Company Limited (OGDCL)
ORIENT PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL INC’s (OPII)
Redwood Petroleum Co, Ltd
Sinochem Petroleum Exploration & Production Co. Ltd.
TOTAL Exploration & Production
Turkiye Petrolleri A.O. Genel Mudurlugu (TPAO)
Of the eleven companies that have submitted EOIs, seven are pre-qualified to bid in the First Afghan Hydrocarbon Bidding Round
A committee was formed by the Ministry of Mines to review the eleven Expressions of Interests (EOI) submitted before the June 15, 2009 deadline. The committee focused in particular on the financial standing, the average daily operated production and the experience in dealing with gas containing high H2S (sour gas) for each of these companies.
The following companies are qualified to bid for the Jangalikalan, Juma-Bashikurd and Kashkari blocks on offer during this First Afghan Bidding Round:
Addax Petroleum
Oil & Gas Development Company Limited (OGDCL)
ORIENT PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL INC’s (OPII)
Redwood Petroleum Co, Ltd
Sinochem Petroleum Exploration & Production Co. Ltd.
TOTAL Exploration & Production
Turkiye Petrolleri A.O. Genel Mudurlugu (TPAO)
The following companies do not pre-qualify to bid during this First Afghan Hydrocarbon Bidding Round:
AfghCana Energy (Asia) Corp. (“AfghCana”)
CALIK ENERJI
Ghazanfar Group Co Ltd
Zurmat Group of Companies Nations Petroleum Calgary Canada
The pre-qualified companies are required to keep the MoM informed of any material change that may affect their pre-qualifications. The MoM reserves the right to change the pre-qualification status of any company based on the occurrence of any event, or the availability of any new or previously undisclosed information, that may affect a company’s ability to perform its contractual commitments should it be awarded one or more blocks in Afghanistan.
Eleven companies submitted Expression of Interests (EOI)
Eleven companies from eight different countries submitted EOI before the June 15, 2009 deadline. A list of pre-qualified companies will be announced by the Ministry of Mines on July 01, 2009. A copy of the minutes of the official document listing the 11 companies can be reviewed in the Documents section of this web site (https://www.afghanistanpetroleum.com/documents.php?cat=1).
List of companies (in alphabetical order):
Addax Petroleum – New Ventures
AfghCana Energy (Asia) Corp. (“AfghCana”)
CALIK ENERJI
Ghazanfar Group Co Ltd
Oil & Gas Development Company Limited
ORIENT PETROLEUM INTERNATIONAL INC’s (“OPII”)
Redwood Petroleum Co, Ltd
Sinochem Petroleum Exploration &Production Co. Ltd.
TOTAL Exploration & Production
Turkiye Petrolleri A.O. Genel Mudurlugu
Zurmat Group of Companies Nations Petroleum Calgary, Canada
Public opening of pre-qualification applications:
Pre-qualification applications shall be opened by the Ministry of Mines on 15 June 2009 at 1400 hrs during a public procedure. The applicants themselves, or their respective authorized representatives are welcome to attend the proceedings. However, attendance at the proceedings is voluntary and the evaluation of the applicants for pre-qualification shall not be affected by whether of not a party has been present during this procedure. The Ministry of Mines should be notified in advanced of the names of any representatives who wish to be present at the opening of applications.
The Ministry of Mines will ensure that minutes are kept of the opening proceedings. The names and addresses of all applicants or authorized representatives present will be recorded in the minutes to be signed by the representatives of the Ministry of Mines and all applicants or authorized representatives present.
The minutes will, on request, be available for applicants after the application has been considered. The minutes will be prepared and disclosed in such manner that avoids disclosure of confidential commercial information.
The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, represented by the Ministry of Mines, is pleased to announce that it has initiated the process that will lead to the Bidding Round for the award of Exploration and Production Sharing Contracts for Hydrocarbon Operations in the following blocks in Northern Afghanistan:
• Jangalikalan (Gas)
• Juma-Bashikurd (Gas)
• Kashkari (Oil)
September 15, 2009
Closing Date for Submission of Bids and Opening of Bids
***
| Field Listing :: Natural resources |
| This entry lists a country’s mineral, petroleum, hydropower, and other resources of commercial importance. | |
|
Country
|
Natural resources |
|---|
| Afghanistan | natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones |
[From - ]
***
My Note -
I thought it was strange that on the page of the CIA World Factbook about economics and resources of Afghanistan there was 0 exports of natural gas despite confirmed reserves (listed below) and 0 confirmed petroleum reserves or exports or production despite petroleum being listed as one of the known country resources – so I got to looking around . . . and found the bidding opportunities listed above for the rights to explore and develop the petroleum resources in Afghanistan. No wonder the world’s military forces, including those of the US, are in Afghanistan – it didn’t make any sense when supposedly the Taliban had been defeated and the country returned to its people in 2001 (and certainly thereafter with the NATO / UK / US and international forces from 42 countries there “securing” the area.)
- cricketdiane, 09 -10-09
***
From CIA World Factbook -
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html
Natural resources: 
***
|
|
|
opium, wheat, fruits, nuts; wool, mutton, sheepskins, lambskins
|
|
|
|
|
small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, coal, copper
|
|
|
|
|
NA%
|
|
|
|
|
839 million kWh (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 149 |
|
|
|
|
1.418 billion kWh (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 137 |
|
|
|
|
0 kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
|
|
|
608 million kWh (2007 est.)
|
|
|
|
|
0 bbl/day (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 210 |
|
|
|
|
5,036 bbl/day (2006 est.)
country comparison to the world: 165 |
|
|
|
|
0 bbl/day (2005)
country comparison to the world: 140 |
|
|
|
|
4,534 bbl/day (2005)
country comparison to the world: 162 |
|
|
|
|
0 bbl (1 January 2006 est.)
country comparison to the world: 100 |
|
|
|
|
20 million cu m (2006 est.)
country comparison to the world: 87 |
|
|
|
|
20 million cu m (2006 est.)
country comparison to the world: 110 |
|
|
|
|
0 cu m (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 205 |
|
|
|
|
0 cu m (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 62 |
|
|
|
|
49.55 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
country comparison to the world: 65 |
|
|
|
|
$-67 million (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 75 |
|
***
From – listing on Afghanistan – CIA World Factbook – 2009
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html
***
http://www.fieldgemology.org/gemology%20afghanistan%20ruby%20jagdalek%20emerald%20panjshir.php
My Note -
This site link above has great pictures and information about the mountainous territory where Osama bin Laden and the Taliban have held back the Soviet armies during the Soviet – Afghan war and recently against international forces. It is also the area where the emeralds and other gemstones are mined and it has lots of pictures that are very nifty, informative and interesting.
Through its home page portal, there is also a nice tour of the ruby mining and rubies found in Northern Pakistan farther into the same mountain range,
- cricketdiane
http://www.gubelinlab.com/himalaya_fieldtrip.asp
Another nifty gemology scenic and written description of the area.
Then, aside from way too much info I found, there were a lot of great photos in areas where Osama bin Laden had been seen or nearly caught including some beautiful lakes, valleys, very interesting towns with panoramio photos on the Google map. After looking at some of them, I decided to place some markers on significant places from news stories about Osama bin Laden and the emerald mines, lakes and a few towns plus the place where uranium mining is being conducted in Pakistan, so I could understand the relationships between them. It is interesting to see the little markets and the video from Lake Katora. Yeah, he’s really been roughing it . . .
- cricketdiane, my note
***
The Google map I’m working on making -
**
Name of the Google map -
Islamic Fold
Places in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Hindu Kush Range, Lake Katora and FATA – 2009 – 2010
[and the one marker in Pakistan is where uranium mining is occurring.]
My Note -
I made one of those Google maps with lots of good information but these links probably aren’t done quite right because the first one has too many photos and the markers that I placed. The second link may or may not be embedded correctly – I’m going to have to work on that.
Below, is where I found the uranium mining location, however, there were a number of other references to it and to places where those uranium resources are being used to further the Pakistan security directorate.
***
From wikipedia -
Pakistan’s civilian nuclear programme started in 1956 when the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) was established, with the initial target of capitalizing on the U.S-Pakistan’s quest for acquiring the sensitive nuclear technology. U.S President Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace Programme”, and its first chairman was Dr. Nazir Ahmad[15]. In 1961, PAEC set up a Mineral Centre at Lahore and a similar multidisciplinary Centre was set up in Dhaka, in the then East Pakistan. With these two centers, the basic research work started[16].
The first thing that was to be undertaken was the search for Uranium. This continued for about 3 years from 1960 to 1963. Uranium deposits were discovered in the Dera Ghazi Khan district and the first-ever national award was given to the PAEC. Mining of Uranium began in the same year.
Dr. Abdus Salam and Dr. I. H. Usmani also sent a large number of scientists to pursue doctorate degrees in the field of Nuclear Technology and nuclear reactor technology. In December 1965, then-Foreign Minister of Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto visited Vienna where he met with known Pakistani nuclear engineer, Munir Ahmad Khan. At a Vienna meeting on december, Munir A. Khan informed Bhutto about the statue of Indian nuclear programme[17].
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction
***
hindu_kush.gif
http://www.history.upenn.edu/coursepages/hist086/material/hindu_kush.gif
***
hindu.kush.1.jpg
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/images_sga/hindu.kush.1.jpg
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/SGA.HinduKush.aspx
[see below on pg. 9 - directly beneath the wikipedia entry]
***
Hindu Kush
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hindu Kush
Range
Mountains of Afghanistan
Countries Afghanistan, Pakistan
Region Northern Areas
Part of Himalaya
Highest point Tirich Mir
- elevation 7,690 m (25,230 ft)
- coordinates 36°14?45?N 71°50?38?E? / ?36.24583°N 71.84389°E? / 36.24583; 71.84389
The Hindu Kush is a mountain range in eastern and central Afghanistan and north-western Pakistan. The highest point in Hindukush mountain region is the Tirich Mir (7,708 m or 25,289 ft) in the Chitral region of the North-west frontier Province, Pakistan.
It is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram Range, and is a sub-range of the Himalayas.
It is also calculated to be the geographic center of population of the world. [1]
[ . . . ]
Military Presence
After historical military presence since the time of Alexander the Great, the recent Cold War caused the presence of Soviet and mujahideen fighters and then revolutionary Taliban. Currently Al Qaeda’s presence made the U.S. forces to shift their operation in the Hindu Kush mountain ranges.[9][10]
Pre Islamic Tribes of the Hindu Kush
* Shins
* Yeshkun[11]
* Chiliss
* Neemchas[12]
* Koli[13]
* Palus[14]
* Gaware[15]
* Yeshkuns[16]
* Krammins[17]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_Kush
***
Selected photos from the area that I found on Google map –
13244141.jpg
near Ba-bun di Basti, North-West Frontier (Pakistan)
35° 0′ 8.28 N 73° 56′ 19.85 E
Uploaded the 2008-08-18 04:17:08
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/13244141
World Map Pakistan North-West Frontier Ba-bun di Basti
***
Most Beautiful Lake Katora Dir North Pakistan 5
From saeed250656 – 1,813 views
Unbelievable Unknown most beautiful Lake in Pakistan.The land of pashtuns hospitality.
***
Kalaam, Swat Valley
Pakistan
bbs.keyhole.com
1 of 2 placemarks in Untitled Map – 1k
At an elevation of 2070m and about 100km from Mingora, Kalam was the center of an independant state in the 19th century. It was later taken by Chitral, and then given to Swat after the Partition. Today it is overwhelmed by an incredible number of tourist hotels, and Pepsi hoardings are everywhere. Day trips can be made from here to the alpine Mahodand lake and some of the most beautiful relatively low-altitude treks are also starting from here. Two of the best are the trek to Sor Laspur near Shandur Top in Chitral and another one starting from Gabral to Dir-Kohistan via the beautiful Kumrat valley.
bbs.keyhole.com
**
Magical Kumrat Valley
Panoramio
By glitteringstar
11836525.jpg
The Magical Kumrat Valley
World Map Pakistan North-West Frontier Khela-n
by little_spy007
This photo is selected for Google Earth [?] – ID: 11836525
3 km from Khela-n, North-West Frontier (Pakistan)
35° 29′ 23.09 N 72° 18′ 3.69 E
Uploaded the 2008-07-06 05:41:17
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/11836525
***
22555729.jpg
World Map Pakistan North-West Frontier Ba-nkhwar
by umar_sharif
This photo is selected for Google Earth [?] – ID: 22555729
10 km from Ba-nkhwar, North-West Frontier (Pakistan)
35° 38′ 34.04 N 72° 30′ 51.84 E
Uploaded the 2009-05-20 05:10:37
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/22555729
Panjshir Valley – more info »
Afghanistan
Hyder, Fazel, Karzai, and many other government officials went to Panjshir to visit Massoud’s grave two days before the anniversary of his death. …
1 of 31 placemarks in Middle East project – maps.google.com
***
[From a gemologist expedition - ]
With the help of Mr. Rahim Azizi we prepared our expedition to Panjshir, seeking the support from some Panjshir valley elderly and other important people. After a short stop at the Massoud mausoleum near Bozarak village we arrived in Dach Te Rewat village. Ahmad Shah Massoud was one of the most famous Afghan Mujahideen commanders. He became very popular for his fight against the Soviets in the Panjshir valley and later against the Taliban.
The Bismal mine in the Panjshir valley was apparently the place where in the early 1970’s, the first Panjshir emeralds were found by locals. These locals had gem mining experience from the Sar E Sang lapis lazuli mines. These famous mines located in the north eastern part of the Panjshir valley are known to belong to the oldest gem mining area on earth. Archeological work has shown that the lapis found in some 5000 year old Egyptian tombs came from this area.
Currently emeralds are being mined in the Panjshir valley in three main areas: The Bismal-Riwat, the Ringe and the Mukeni-Zara Kel areas. During our visit to the Panjshir valley, we visited the Bismal mine and the Mukeni area. We were told that somewhere between 800 and 1200 miners were involved in the production of emeralds. One group was working at Bismal and about seven other groups were mining in an area called Yachnow. Around sixty groups were working in the Ringe area while in Mukeni and its neighboring Zara Kel area around 40 other groups were operating.
http://www.gubelinlab.com/himalaya_fieldtrip.asp
***
Bismal emerald mine
Afghanistan
www.fieldgemology.org
1 of 1 placemarks in ~GE14B.kmz – 1k
Visited in the morning on June 28th 2006. We arrived there at 10am after a 2 hours walk. This tunnel is the oldest and the deepest tunnel (100m) in all the Panjshir valley as it was around here that the first emerald were found in Panjshir probably in 1973.
http://www.fieldgemology.com/afghanistan/TRIPDAY123.jpg
it was the location where we did the videos about the preparation of a mine
blast http://www.fieldgemology.com/afghanistan/TRIPDAY118.jpg
**
http://www.fieldgemology.com/afghanistan/TRIPDAY119.jpg
and the following search for emeralds. http://www.fieldgemology.com/afghanistan/TRIPDAY142.jpg
**
Main Portal page, photos, google earth maps and written info about Afghanistan mines from above website – 2006 tour of area and June 2008 tour – includes photo of Massoud shrine info
http://www.fieldgemology.org/gemology%20afghanistan%20ruby%20jagdalek%20emerald%20panjshir.php
Excerpt -
Sixty groups were possibly working in the Khenj area while in the Mukeni and in its neighboring the Zara Kel areas around 40 other groups were operating. Globally one of the reason of the decrease of the number of miners is that the work is very hard and most of the successful miners after getting some money have settled in Kabul and are doing now another business less dangerous and less hard.
On June 28th we started our expedition from Dacht Te Rewat village (35° 28 93N, 69° 48 78E, 2258 meters altitude) and walked for 2 hours and half to the Bismal mine (35° 28 72N, 69° 49 98E, 2690 meters altitude). We were told that this mine was the place where in the early 1970’s, the first Panjshir emeralds were found. The first successful Pansheri emerald miners were told us to be Pansheri with an experience of gem mining at the Sar E Sang lapis mines.
The Bismal mine is in fact composed of several tunnels following a quartz albite rich vein. The main tunnel we visited was around 100 meters deep which reflect that these mines are among the oldest in the Panshir valley. It was a strait tunnel penetrating horizontally inside the mountain and nearly high enough for people to be able to walk inside, some consolidation work consisting mainly in stone walls was visible. The mine was worked by a team of 10 miners wearing the standard clothes of the Pansheri.
[also - ]
TRIPDAY210.jpg
After this visit to the Bismal mine we came back to Dacht Te Riwat village and took our car to go to Mukeni village a little bit lower in the valley. We then started again to walk for 2 hours in order to reach a small village (35° 25 33N 69° 48 55E, 2563 meters altitude) to spend the night. On the way we passed near the moudjahiddin jails were Massoud fighters were keeping their Russian prisoners.
At the village we stayed in the house of a local commandan and we were joined there by Commandan Ayub a senior Moudjahiddin commander who fought against the Soviets and witnessed the Panjshir emerald mining from the very beginning. This evening turned to be one of the best time we spend in Panjshir, while surrounded by former Moudjahiddins, we enjoyed some great food, great stories of emeralds and epic battles while playing with birds…
http://www.fieldgemology.org/gemology%20afghanistan%20ruby%20jagdalek%20emerald%20panjshir.php
[also from the same page - ]
3 ) Visit to the Panjshir valley emerald mines (June 2006).
In the Panjshir they could witness some underground mining activity in the Bismal and Mukeni areas. The production in Panjshir seemed to be still strong especially in small sizes emeralds but the number of miners seems to have dropped compared to the 1980’s. Currently around 1000 miners are possibly working the Panjshir mountain large deposit. The prospective for the future looks good as new mines open regularly and seems to produce fine stones.
4) Visit to the Jagdalek ruby mining area (July 2006)
In Jagdalek the official ruby production stopped 2 years ago. The Afghan governement is currently searching for investors to work the mines. Illegal mining looks to be present in the area keeping a week ruby production to find its way to the Peshawar gem market. Rubies are found in Jagdalek from marbles. Mines are not there underground, they are huge trenches. We visited some of these mining trenches in the Khalwat area as you can see on the numerous photos on this report.
[ . . . ]
Afghanistan is a well known gem producing country hosting some of the oldest mines in the world. Its lapis lazuli mines at Sar e Sang as an example are known to have produce gemstones for the Egyptians and are still producing today. Emeralds from the Panjshir valley were also probably known at the time of Alexander the Great as the Bactrian emeralds reported by Theophrastus around 320BC ( Forestier and Piat, L’emeraude p 139-145; and D.Schwarz, G. Giuliani Emerald of the World p 61 to 63). Neverhteless it is during the 1970’s that Afghanistan has emerge as an important source for many gemstones. Russians geologists explored the mountains in search for strategic minerals for the Soviet Union then Mudjahedeen were mining to get income to fight the Soviets. During the last 30 years the country was a major source for lapis lazuli (Sar E Sang) and a noticeable supllier of rubies (Jagdalek), emeralds (Panjshir valley), tourmaline, kunzite, beryl and aquamarine (Nuristan).
***
Art Keller, a blond, blue-eyed CIA agent, sits inside a decrepit building deep inside al-Qaeda territory, staring at his computer screen. He is forbidden by his Pakistani minders from venturing out into the badlands of Waziristan to help to find and kill the world’s most wanted man.
He is sick and exhausted, and suffering from food poisoning. Back home in the US his father is dying of cancer. The plumbing is basic, the heat intense — the generator has failed again. He pores over cables looking for any scrap of information — an intercepted phone call, an aerial photograph — that might finally end the hunt for Osama bin Laden.
[etc. ]
Mr Keller was one of an estimated 50 to 100 CIA agents and special operations officers whose mission for the past eight years has been to find and kill bin Laden and other top al-Qaeda leaders in the hostile and forbidding Pakistani border region, where he is believed to be hiding.
[ . . . ]
“Our role in the hunt was done entirely from in front of a computer inside the base,” Mr Keller says. When he wanted to follow up a lead, he would get in touch with a local Pashtun proxy to ask him to travel to a certain area to glean information.
[etc.]
From – The Times
September 9, 2009
Former CIA agent’s hunt for bin Laden in Pakistani badlands
Osama Bin Laden
Tim Reid in Washington
[plus four other pages of comments]
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6826701.ece
***
12742978.jpg
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/12742978
World Map Pakistan Azad Kashmir Kel
by rajashabbir
near Kel, Azad Kashmir (Pakistan)
34° 49′ 27.30 N 74° 21′ 15.36 E
Uploaded the 2008-08-02 23:29:45
***
Zara Kel emerald mining area
Afghanistan
www.fieldgemology.org
1 of 18 placemarks in ~GEE1.kmz – 5k
Not visited. We could see the mining area from the hight of the Mukeni mines on the other side of the valley. During summer 2006 possibly 20 groups of miners were working around here.
***
AFGANISTAN – TIENDAS
World Map Afghanistan Nu-resta-n Wareshtowr
by BLACKY_CR
near Wareshtowr, Nu-resta-n (Afghanistan)
35° 19′ 2.52 N 70° 13′ 28.59 E
Uploaded the 2009-06-12 18:18:06
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/23368870
23368867.jpg
World Map Afghanistan Baghla-n Sar-e Bi-d
AFGANISTAN – TIENDAS
4 km from Sar-e Bi-d, Baghla-n (Afghanistan)
35° 27′ 38.41 N 68° 33′ 16.88 E
by BLACKY_CR
Uploaded the 2009-06-12 18:17:59
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/23368867
***
23368864.jpg
World Map Afghanistan Hera-t Towdeh
by BLACKY_CR
1 km from Towdeh, Hera-t (Afghanistan)
34° 9′ 42.54 N 62° 34′ 41.25 E
Uploaded the 2009-06-12 18:17:55
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/23368864
***
World Map Afghanistan Now Sha-h
23368874.jpg
by BLACKY_CR
near Now Sha-h (Afghanistan)
34° 11′ 53.42 N 66° 26′ 43.13 E
Uploaded the 2009-06-12 18:18:22
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/23368874
***
23368873.jpg
World Map Afghanistan Ba-mi-a-n Sar-e Gowli-
by BLACKY_CR
near Sar-e Gowli-, Ba-mi-a-n (Afghanistan)
35° 23′ 20.58 N 68° 4′ 16.64 E
Uploaded the 2009-06-12 18:18:18
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/23368873
***
17273475.jpg
ghazikot
World Map Pakistan Federally Administered Tribal Areas Dandaryao
by ikrambuneri
near Dandaryao, Federally Administered Tribal Areas (Pakistan)
33° 54′ 56.62 N 70° 16′ 11.74 E
Uploaded the 2008-12-29 10:49:02
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/17273475
***
1847528.jpg
near Kharkai, North-West Frontier (Pakistan)
33° 45′ 4.00 N 70° 48′ 57.00 E
[my note - picture of big ship / cruise ship somewhere - but check google map here - very interesting and very critical terrain]
by vides
Uploaded the 2007-04-20 04:43:33
Door to the Pacific
in Long Beach, California (United States)
La Playa
Union Station
Los Angeles
World Map Pakistan North-West Frontier Kharkai
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/1847528
***
hindu_kush.jpg
http://www.livius.org/a/1/alexander/hindu_kush.jpg
6393498.jpg
Centaurus
near Mohra Telia-n, Punjab (Pakistan)
33° 42′ 31.59 N 73° 3′ 7.36 E
by Mbilal
* Islamabad
Photo details:
* Viewed 4559 times
* Uploaded the 2007-12-09 11:39:03
World Map Pakistan Punjab Mohra Telia-n
Comments
MBilal, on December 9, 2007, said:
Its consists one 7 star hotel (right most) two appartments building and one block for private/public offices
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/6393498
**
4552977.jpg
by MHAQS
near Mohra Telia-n, Punjab (Pakistan)
33° 42′ 39.18 N 73° 2′ 42.87 E
F8 Church
World Map Pakistan Punjab Mohra Telia-n
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/4552977
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332785.jpg
by Anton Kovalenko
Anton Kovalenko, on July 14, 2007, said:
Please visit http://www.antonkovalenko.com
# Viewed 1335 times
# Uploaded the 2007-01-07 17:11:15
near Samarqand, Samarqand (Uzbekistan)
39° 38′ 54.34 N 66° 58′ 7.04 E
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/332785
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Kunar Province
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2007)
Coordinates: 35°00?N 71°12?E? / ?35.0°N 71.2°E? / 35.0; 71.2
Kunar (????)
Province
Country Afghanistan
Capital Asadabad
- coordinates 35°00?N 71°12?E? / ?35.0°N 71.2°E? / 35.0; 71.2
Population 413,008 [1]
Timezone UTC+4:30
Main language Pashto
Map of Afghanistan with Kunar highlighted
Kunar (Pashto: ????) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the northeastern part of the country. It borders Nurestan to the north-west, Laghman to the west, and Nangarhar to the south.
Its capital is Asadabad.
Contents
* 1 Geography and ethnic makeup
* 2 Military activity
o 2.1 Hunt for Bin Laden
* 3 Districts
* 4 Politics
* 5 Gallery
* 6 References
Geography and ethnic makeup
Kunar is a embedded in the Hindu Kush mountain range, and is heavily mountainous and forested. The population of 413,008 is 95% Pashtun and 5% Nuristani.[1][2] The main tribes are:
* Pashtun
o Safi
+ Gorbuz
+ Masud
+ Wadir
o Shinwari
o Tarkani
+ Salarzai
+ Wur
+ Kakazai
o Mohmand
+ Baezai
+ Sepah
* Nuristani
o Kom
In addition, there are the Nuristani tribes of Kalasha, Tregami, Kshto and Gramsana in smaller number as well, who have their own villages in the province.[2]
Military activity
US soldiers near FOB (Forward Operating Base) Naray.
U.S. Army soldier in Kunar Province.
During both the Soviet occupation, and the more recent conflicts involving U.S., Afghan and NATO forces, Kunar has been a favoured spot of insurgent groups.
Its impenetrable terrain, extensive cave networks and border with the semi-autonomous Pakistani North-West Frontier Province provides several advantages for militant groups. The province is informally known as Enemy Central by American troops.
Like many of the mountainous eastern provinces of Afghanistan, the groups involved in armed conflict vary greatly in strength and purpose.
Native Taliban forces mingle with foreign Al-Qaeda fighters, while mujahadeen militias, such as Gulbuddin Hekmatyar’s Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin, continue to operate as they did in the chaotic post-Soviet years.
Another strong militia in the region is the Hezbi Islami faction of the late Mulavi Younas Khalis, who had his headquarters in neighbouring Nurestan Province.
Compounding the problems of the province is an extensive criminal trade in smuggled lumber and other natural resources. This criminal activity is often organized along tribal lines, and has led to intense deforestation in some areas.
Hunt for Bin Laden
Osama bin Laden has often been rumoured to be in the province, or close by. In an intensive military operation in summer 2005, called Operation Red Wing, American forces undertook a massive hunt for bin Laden and other senior Al-Qaeda leaders. While attempting to rescue four stranded Navy SEALS during the operation, 19 American Forces were killed when their CH-47 Chinook helicopter was shot down, representing the single biggest loss of American forces since their invasion of the country.
According to Pakistan’s Interior Minister Rehman Malik, Osama bin Laden was most likely hiding in Kunar Province in the spring and summer of 2009: According to our information Osama is in Afghanistan, probably Kunar, as most of the activities against Pakistan are being directed from Kunar.”[3]
Districts
Districts of Kunar
Districts of Kunar Province District ? Capital ? Population[4] ? Area[5] ? Notes ?
Asadabad 29,177 Is the Capital of Kunar Province, which includes Asadabad and adjacent towns, immediately surrounding the confluence of the Pech and Kunar Rivers.
Ghaziabad may be labeled as Bar Kunar 23,663
Bar Kunar 20,716
Chapa Dara 28,681
Dangam 15,509
Dara-I-Pech 44,958 Commonly known as the Pech District or Manogai District.
Khas Kunar 31,950
Marawara 17,316
Narang 27,937
Naray 32,510
Nurgol 25,047
Sawkai 28,905
Sirkani 24,080
Wata Pur 28,778 Is the West portion of the labeled Asadabad Section.
Shigal 33,781 is within the labeled Asadabad Section, East and North of Watapor.
Asmar is between the labeled Asadabad and Dangam Sections, East and North of Shigal.
Politics
Assadullah Wafa was the former governor of the province (replaced in Aug 2006).
Asadabad hosts both an American Provincial Reconstruction Team office and a UNAMA development office.
Gallery
The Noorgal district is the first district of Kunar province. On the way of Jalalabad to Kunar that district come on the way- and first district of Kunar which has near with Jalalabad.
References
1. ^ a b Afghanistan’s Provinces – Konar at NPS
2. ^ a b Kunar Tribal Map on nps.edu
3. ^ Christina Lamb, Stop bombing us: Osama isn’t here, says Pakistan The Sunday Times, July 12, 2009
4. ^ http://www.mrrd.gov.af/nabdp/Provincial%20Profiles/Kunar%20PDP%20Provincial%20profile.pdf
5. ^ Afghanistan Geographic & Thematic Layers
Districts of Kunar
Asadabad • Bar Kunar • Chapa Dara • Chawkay • Dangam • Dara-I-Pech • Ghaziabad • Khas Kunar • Marawara • Narang Wa Badil • Nari • Nurgal • Shaygal Wa Shiltan • Sirkanay • Wata Pur
Provinces of Afghanistan
Badakhshan A Badghis A Baghlan A Balkh A Bamiyan A Daykundi A Farah A Faryab A Ghazni A Ghor A Helmand A Herat A Jowzjan A Kabul A Kandahar A Kapisa A Khost A Kunar A Kunduz A Laghman A Lowgar A Nangarhar A Nimruz A Nuristan A Oruzgan A Paktia A Paktika A Panjshir A Parwan A Samangan A Sar-e Pol A Takhar A Wardak A Zabul
Flag of Afghanistan
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunar_Province
Categories: Provinces of Afghanistan | Kunar Province | Territorial disputes of Pakistan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunar_Province
***
***
There’s more – but maybe later. – cdcp
***
In March 1985, the US government adopted National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 166, which set a goal of military victory for the mujahideen. After 1985 the CIA and Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) placed greater pressure on the mujahideen to attack government strongholds. Under direct instructions from Director of Central Intelligence William Casey, the CIA initiated programs for training Afghans in techniques such as car bombs and assassinations and in engaging in cross-border raids into the USSR.[50]
Pakistan’s ISI and Special Service Group (SSG) were actively involved in the conflict, and in cooperation with the CIA and the United States Army Special Forces, as well as the British Special Air Service, supported the mujahideen.
The theft of large sums of aid spurred Pakistan’s economic growth, but along with the war in general had devastating side effects for that country. The siphoning off of aid weapons in the port city of Karachi contributed to disorder and violence there, while heroin entering from Afghanistan to pay for arms contributed to addiction problems.[51]
In retaliation for Pakistan’s assistance to the insurgents, the KHAD Afghan security service, under leader Mohammad Najibullah, carried out (according to the Mitrokhin archives and other sources) a large number of operations against Pakistan. In 1987, 127 incidents resulted in 234 deaths in Pakistan. In April 1988, an ammunition depot outside the Pakistani capital of Islamabad was blown up killing 100 and injuring more than 1000 people. The KHAD and KGB were suspected in the perpetration of these acts.[52]
Pakistan took in millions of Afghan refugees (mostly Pashtun) fleeing the Soviet occupation. Although the refugees were controlled within Pakistan’s largest province, Balochistan under then-martial law ruler General Rahimuddin Khan, the influx of so many refugees – believed to be the largest refugee population in the world[53] — spread into several other regions.
All of this had a heavy impact on Pakistan and its effects continue to this day. Pakistan, through its support for the mujahideen, played a significant role in the eventual withdrawal of Soviet military personnel from Afghanistan.
Pakistan went to the point of maintaining a limited air war against Afghan/Soviet forces.[54] [55]
April 1985-January 1987: Exit strategy
Awards ceremony for the 9th Company
Soviet soldier in Afghanistan, 1988.
The first step of the exit strategy was to transfer the burden of fighting the mujahideen to the Afghan armed forces, with the aim of preparing them to operate without Soviet help. During this phase, the Soviet contingent was restricted to supporting the DRA forces by providing artillery, air support and technical assistance, though some large-scale operations were still carried out by Soviet troops.
Under Soviet guidance, the DRA armed forces were built up to an official strength of 302,000 in 1986. To minimize the risk of a coup d’état, they were divided into different branches, each modeled on its Soviet counterpart. The ministry of defense forces numbered 132,000, the ministry of interior 70,000 and the ministry of state security (KHAD) 80,000. However, these were theoretical figures: in reality each service was plagued with desertions, the army alone suffering 32,000 per year.
The decision to engage primarily Afghan forces was taken by the Soviets, but was resented by the PDPA, who viewed the departure of their protectors without enthusiasm. In May 1987 a DRA force attacked well-entrenched mujahideen positions in the Arghandab District, but the mujahideen held their ground, and the attackers suffered heavy casualties.[56] In the spring of 1986, an offensive into Paktia Province briefly occupied the mujahideen base at Zhawar only at the cost of heavy losses.[57] Meanwhile, the mujahideen benefited from expanded foreign military support from the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and other Muslim nations. The US tended to favor the Afghan resistance forces led by Ahmed Shah Massoud, and US support for Massoud’s forces increased considerably during the Reagan administration in what US military and intelligence forces called Operation Cyclone. Primary advocates for supporting Massoud included two Heritage Foundation foreign policy analysts, Michael Johns and James A. Phillips, both of whom championed Massoud as the Afghan resistance leader most worthy of US support under the Reagan Doctrine.[58][59][60]
[ . . . ]
Eyvazov’s theory was later strengthened when the Taliban movement developed and formed from orphans or refugee children who were forced by the Soviets to flee their homes and relocate their lives in Pakistan. The swift rise to power, from the young Taliban in 1994, was the result of the disorder and civil war that had warlords running wild because of the complete breakdown of law and order in Afghanistan after the departure of the Soviets.[79]
[ . . . ]
Ideological impact
The Islamists who fought also believed that they were responsible for the fall of the Soviet Union. Osama bin Laden, for example, was asserting the credit for the collapse of the Soviet Union … goes to God and the mujahideen in Afghanistan … the US had no mentionable role, but collapse made the US more haughty and arrogant. [81] As discussed in ‘The power of Nightmares’ many neoconservatives in the US also believed that through the US aid to the mujahideen the US had caused the collapse of the USSR.
[etc.]
[And from the list of source citations - this one catches my eye - worth reading -]
17. ^ The CIA’s Intervention in Afghanistan (Interview with Zbigniew Brzezinski) . Le Nouvel Observateur. 1998-01-21. http://www.globalresearch.ca/articles/BRZ110A.html. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
[And - among others of interest -]
36. ^ 1986-1992: CIA and British Recruit and Train Militants Worldwide to Help Fight Afghan War . History Commons. http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=a86operationcyclone. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
[Excerpted From - ]
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_in_Afghanistan
Categories: Soviet war in Afghanistan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_in_Afghanistan
***
Anonymous Post
On September 15-16, 2009 on the Islamic Night of Determination there is a strong possibility for activity.
A major muslim leader will either declare himself, or Islam will cause some kind of disaster or war.
Night of Determination is when God determines the course of the world for the following year.
The Islamic who believes that he is to be the emissary of Allah, in order to bring judgment upon the infidels, makes this date a high risk date for a catastrophic event or a revealing/declaring of himself.
This can occur any year on Ramadan.
This date occurs on the 26th & 27th day of Ramadan which is right around September 15-16th.
Note that Rosh Hashanah starts on September 18th, 2009 and Yom Kippur on September 27, 2009.
There has been Seven times in history where the Muslims have declared some terrible war on Ramadan (August 21 to September 19, 2009).
This is the html version of the file -
http://www.continuingdaily.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/cdaily/2009/07/islamic-night-of-determination.doc
Google automatically generates html versions of documents as we crawl the web.
***
NEWS ANALYSIS
Ramadan and nuke terror
Is ‘American Hiroshima’ set for this month?
Posted: October 07, 2005
1:00 am Eastern
By Paul L. Williams
© 2009 WorldNetDaily.com
Editor’s note: This exclusive report by Paul Williams first appeared in Joseph Farah’s G2 Bulletin, the premium, online, intelligence newsletter published by the founder of WND. Subscriptions to G2 Bulletin are now available at half price – $99 a year or just $9.95 per month.
The next terrorist attack on the United States – a nuclear hell storm planned for seven major cities – is set to occur this month.
That’s the word from al-Qaida.
In a communiqu? to Osama bin Laden, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the top al-Qaida lieutenant in Iraq, mentions the Great Ramadan Offensive that will create a fateful confrontation with the United States and Israel.
I think that the plans for the next stage of the jihad has reached you or will reach you in a few days, Zarqawi writes in the letter. O God, make the plans of Osama come to fruition
The communiqu?, dated May 30, was intercepted by CIA officials and remains on the Global Information System database that is accessible only to government officials with high-security clearance.
Most U. S. intelligence officials dismissed Zarqawi’s letter as wishful thinking until Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden’s second in command, appeared on al-Jazeera, the official television network of Saudi Arabia, to deliver a message to the American people.
In the message, which was broadcast Aug. 8, al-Zawahiri said: What you have seen, O Americans, in New York and Washington and the losses you are having in Afghanistan and Iraq, in spite of the blackouts by your media, are only the losses of the initial clashes. … You will soon experience horrors that will make you forget the horrors you have encountered in Vietnam.
The al-Qaida chieftain went on to say: Jihadist forces have been established in all of Western Europe to defend the powerless within the nation. For the crimes that the Crusaders have committed against the Muslims will be reaped by Christians and Jews throughout the Western world.
Zawahiri’s video messages are viewed by intelligence officials as telling signs that a terrorist attack is imminent. His televised message Sept. 6, 2004, took place before the December 6, 2004, bombing of the U.S. consulate in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, while his message of June 17, 2005, preceded the London bombings.
Concerns about an October attack were heightened even more by reports that the radical Islamic community viewed the ravages of hurricanes Katrina and Rita as signs that Allah was pleased with the plans for the American Hiroshima.
Allah has punished America with winds and water, one imam is quoted in the GIS report as saying. Another imam reportedly quipped that America, as evidenced by the natural disasters, is under the curse of the Jews.
Christopher Brown, research associate with the Hudson Institute’s Transitions to Democracy project, maintains that the hurricanes have presented al-Qaida with a unique strategic opportunity.
If this attack is launched soon, Brown said, the devastation to the American economy alone could easily far exceed that of the September 11 attacks and could be equivalent to the detonation of a small nuclear device on American soil.
Ramadan represents the ninth month of the Islamic year, the month in which the Koran was revealed to the Prophet Mohammed. According to Muslim tradition, the actual revelation occurred on the night between the 26th and 27th days of the month. On this Night of Determination, Allah determines the fate of the world for the coming year.
The fate of the world for the next Islamic year, if bin Laden has his way, will include the nuclear destruction of the United States.
Bin Laden has been amassing nuclear weapons and materials since 1992, when he was in the Sudan. This was substantiated by the testimony of al-Qaida officials in federal court during the hearings of The U.S. v. Osama bin Laden.
When he returned to Afghanistan, bin Laden purchased tactical nuclear weapons from the Chechen Mafia. News of the sale was confirmed by Saudi, Israeli, British, Saudi and Russian intelligence and reported in The Times of London, the Jerusalem Report, Al Watan al-Arabi, Muslim Magazine, Al-Majallah (London’s Saudi weekly) and by the BBC.
In 1997, bin Laden made additional small nuclear weapons from materials bought not only from the Chechens but also black market sources in Russia, China, Kazakhstan and the Ukraine.
In 1998, he purchased large quantities of highly enriched uranium from Simeon Mogilevich, a Ukrainian arms dealer. For one delivery of fifteen kilos of uranium-236, Mogilevich was paid $70 million. Bin Laden also purchased several bars of enriched uranium-138 from Ibrahim Abd, an Egyptian arms dealer and several Congolese opposition soldiers.
From 1999 to 2001, bin Laden hired scientists and technicians from the A.Q. Khan Research Facility in Pakistan not only to build new nukes from the highly enriched uranium and plutonium but also to maintain, upgrade, reconfigure, and redesign his off-the shelf nukes, including nuclear mines, so that they could be packed into lightweight (less than eight pounds) suitcases and backpacks or molded into warheads that could be launched from 120 or 155 millimeter recoilless rifles.
Upon the arrests of Dr. Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood and Dr. Chaudry Abdul Majid, two top officials from the Khan facility, the CIA discovered that several of bin Laden’s tactical nukes had been forward-deployed to the United States from Karachi.
More information concerning al-Qaida’s nukes came with the arrest in Pakistan of Sharif al-Masri, a key al-Qaida operative. Al Masri, an Egyptian national with close ties to al-Zawahiri, operative, informed CIA and ISI (Pakistani intelligence) officials that several tactical nukes for use in the American Hiroshima had been forward deployed to Mexico for transportation across the border by members of Mara Salvatrucha ( MS-13 ), a Salvadoran street gang.
These developments caused both President Bush and Sen. John Kerry to speak of nuclear terrorism in the 2004 presidential campaign as the single greatest danger facing the American people, and for Vice President Cheney to say that a nuclear attack from al-Qaeda appears imminent.
The seven cities targeted by al-Qaida for nuclear destruction are New York, Washington D.C., Miami, Houston, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Chicago.
Several Islamic scholars say that Ramadan is an unlikely time for al-Qaida to strike since it is the holiest month of the year, a time in which Muslims traditionally refrain from warfare to spend time in fasting, meditation, and prayer. But many Islamic battles throughout history took place during Ramadan, including the following:
* 624 – The Battle of Badr occurred on 17 Ramadan when the Prophet Mohammed led his forces to victory over the Arabian tribes who opposed him.
* 627 – The Muslims trained for the Battle of Ditch during Ramadan
* 630 – The soldiers of Islam, under Mohammed, established a training camp in Tabouk during the month of fasting and attacked the Byzantine army.
* 653 – During Ramadan, the Muslim army conquered Rhodes and melted the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, into weapons for the soldiers.
* 1187 – The Battle of Hattin in which a combined force of Sunnis and Shiites destroyed the Christian army occurred the morning after the Night of Determination.
* 1973 – On Oct. 6, Egyptian and Syrian forces launched a surprise offensive against Israel to launch the Yom Kippur or the 10th of Ramadan War.
* 2000 – Al-Qaida launches the suicide bombing of the USS Cole in Aden harbor Yemen. The attack of Oct. 5 kills 17 and wounds 39 American sailors.
In 2001, Dr. Fuad Mukheimar, secretary-general of the Egyptian Sharia Association, published an article in which he encouraged bin Laden to launch an attack against the U.S. during the holy month.
During the month of Ramadan, Mukheimar wrote, a great Muslim victory was won over the Crusaders under the leadership of Saladin. His advisers counseled him to rest from the jihad during the month of fasting, but Saladin insisted on continuing the jihad during Ramadan because he knew … that fasting helps to [achieve] victory, because during Ramadan the Muslims overcome themselves through fasting, and thus their victory over their enemies is certain.
Bin Laden, who views himself as Saladin’s successor, could opt to heed this advice.
Ramadan began Tuesday, Oct. 4, and ends Nov. 2. The Night of Determination will occur Oct. 29.
Paul Williams is the author of The Al Qaeda Connection. To read his follow-up on the heightened threat of nuclear terrorism during Ramadan, subscribe to Joseph Farah’s G2 Bulletin.
Special offer: For complete coverage of al-Qaida’s Ramadan Offensive and Osama bin Laden’s American Hiroshima nuclear terrorist threat, subscribe to Joseph Farah’s G2 Bulletin, the premium, online, intelligence newsletter published by the founder of WND.
What to do if nuclear disaster is imminent – get free report on practical steps for survival of terror attack.
Previous stories:
New York scrambles amid ‘credible threat’
Bali blasts kick off early ‘Ramadan Offensive’
Nuke terror set for Ramadan?
Al-Qaida’s spectacular ‘Ramadan Offensive’
CDC gets serious about nuke terror
America’s real ‘most wanted’
How al-Qaida terror nukes got into U.S.
Meet al-Qaida’s nuke trigger man
Al-Qaida’s nuclear efforts: ’sophisticated, professional’
Pentagon drills for nuke terror
Turkish police seize Russian uranium
How Pakistan’s Dr. X sold al-Qaida Islamic bomb
Author says prepare for nuclear terror
If al-Qaida has nukes, why wait to use them?
Hiroshima marks 60th anniversary of bombing
Nuke terrorists’ favorite dates
Chertoff warns of nuclear terrorism
Nunn sees nuke terror threat
White House ‘concerned’ about al-Qaida drug link
How Osama bought bomb
Bin Laden did it, say terror experts
http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=46705
***
My Note -
Above article was from a 2005 analysis – isn’t the 21st century as we count it – considered the 15th century according to the Islamic calendars? and the Night of Determination happens on the 15th of September? And personally, I still think that Al Qaeda and Osama bin Laden can be traced using patterns of action and thought to find where they are sitting. Those ideas and the money supporting them aren’t occurring in a vacuum.
I watched the CNN news stories where they are currently discussing the operations in Afghanistan with reporters embedded there and I heard a very distressing term – “actionable intelligence” – and that there has been no “actionable intelligence” on Al Qaeda in the area and Osama bin Laden since 2001 – but that can’t be true, now can it . . .
- cricketdiane, 09-13-09
***
A quick note –
Terrorism by definition is a two-part exercise in insanity and perverse dysfunction.
One part is that no one can look everywhere at once on hyperguard to prevent it for extended periods of time.
And two, it breeds in the shadows of mass and professional agencies’ lethargy, apathy, contempt for concerns about it and incompetence among professionals and systems designed to prevent it, to secure against it and intended to thwart it once those terrorist acts are in progress.
I don’t believe that incompetence among these professionals and agencies occurs naturally or by virtue of ignorance, lack of intelligence in application nor by cause of inability to function competently. It is because of the petty playground politics that begin to occur within the lethargy of still moments in the fight. Between agencies, the bargaining war for power, and the trite vendettas of slights among professionals over their pet projects, pet ideas, favored ideologies, their personalities and egos, takes precedence over the goals that they are intended to serve. That is the place where the terrorist leadership waits to find because in those spaces of time, there is nothing to hold them back.
my analysis, cdcp09
made 09 -13-09
***
So, dumb question -
could the components of nuclear weapons to be constructed later on site be brought aboard a cruise ship as a tourist and then arrive in the Port of Los Angeles without anyone knowing it?
September 4, 2009
from New York Times – 09 – 02 – 09
To be fair, finance theorists didn’t accept the efficient-market hypothesis merely because it was elegant, convenient and lucrative. They also produced a great deal of statistical evidence, which at first seemed strongly supportive. But this evidence was of an oddly limited form.
Finance economists rarely asked the seemingly obvious (though not easily answered) question of whether asset prices made sense given real-world fundamentals like earnings. Instead, they asked only whether asset prices made sense given other asset prices.
Larry Summers, now the top economic adviser in the Obama administration, once mocked finance professors with a parable about “ketchup economists” who “have shown that two-quart bottles of ketchup invariably sell for exactly twice as much as one-quart bottles of ketchup,” and conclude from this that the ketchup market is perfectly efficient.
But neither this mockery nor more polite critiques from economists like Robert Shiller of Yale had much effect. Finance theorists continued to believe that their models were essentially right, and so did many people making real-world decisions.
Not least among these was Alan Greenspan, who was then the Fed chairman and a long-time supporter of financial deregulation whose rejection of calls to rein in subprime lending or address the ever-inflating housing bubble rested in large part on the belief that modern financial economics had everything under control.
There was a telling moment in 2005, at a conference held to honor Greenspan’s tenure at the Fed. One brave attendee, Raghuram Rajan (of the University of Chicago, surprisingly), presented a paper warning that the financial system was taking on potentially dangerous levels of risk. He was mocked by almost all present — including, by the way, Larry Summers, who dismissed his warnings as “misguided.”
By October of last year, however, Greenspan was admitting that he was in a state of “shocked disbelief,” because “the whole intellectual edifice” had “collapsed.”
Since this collapse of the intellectual edifice was also a collapse of real-world markets, the result was a severe recession — the worst, by many measures, since the Great Depression. What should policy makers do?
Unfortunately, macroeconomics, which should have been providing clear guidance about how to address the slumping economy, was in its own state of disarray.
[Etc. - it is worth reading the whole thing - all 8 pages]
[excerpted from - ]
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/magazine/06Economic-t.html?pagewanted=3&em
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/06/magazine/06Economic-t.html?pagewanted=1&em
Paul Krugman is a Times Op-Ed columnist and winner of the 2008 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science. His latest book is “The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008.”
New York Times
How Did Economists Get It So Wrong?
By PAUL KRUGMAN
Published: September 2, 2009
***
September 3, 2009
***
That would certainly help and is a really good point but are they taking a portion of the carbon dioxide and converting it to oxygen? Wonder if those weeds and the silt around them could be packaged into something to cover areas that are growing into deserts to reclaim them? Just thinking . . . Thanks for your comment – very helpful and good insight. Definitely gets me thinking about it differently. – cricketdiane, 09-01-09 ***
cricketdiane
World Climate Conference 3 – August 31 – September 4, 2009 – Geneva, Switzerland – (Happening Right Now) – Wildfires, Climate Change, Desertification, Increasing Deserts, Water Table Depletion, Global Warming – G20 talk to them now – their meeting is September Pittsburgh
Stephen Klaber
Submitted on 2009/09/01 at 12:37pm
Climate change is not something we are helpless against. Too much attention is being focused on the Carbon cycles, and too little on the Water cycles. Worldwide, our fresh water supplies are overrun with weeds. Aquatic weeds more than quadruple evaporative losses on a body of water. They clog waterways with silt, and turn wetlands into drylands. Clearing the weeds and their silt is the way to restore health to our wetlands. Healthy wetlands are the key to healthy drylands. Human use of water supplies must be limited, but let’s share less with weeds.
Climate change is not something we are helpless against. Too much attention is being focused on the Carbon cycles, and too little on the Water cycles. Worldwide, our fresh water supplies are overrun with weeds. Aquatic weeds more than quadruple evaporative losses on a body of water. They clog waterways with silt, and turn wetlands into drylands. Clearing the weeds and their silt is the way to restore health to our wetlands. Healthy wetlands are the key to healthy drylands. Human use of water supplies must be limited, but let’s share less with weeds.
Stephen Klaber
***
My Response to the Comment above -
***
That would certainly help and is a really good point but are they taking a portion of the carbon dioxide and converting it to oxygen? Wonder if those weeds and the silt around them could be packaged into something to cover areas that are growing into deserts to reclaim them? Just thinking . . . Thanks for your comment – very helpful and good insight. Definitely gets me thinking about it differently. – cricketdiane, 09-01-09 ***
cricketdiane
***
My Note -
Before the Beijing Olympics, there was a news story about the cleaning out of a bunch of water areas where weeds or some kind of aquatic green plant life had become overgrown. The news showed pictures of them cleaning it up for the visitors and some of the events that were to take place. It seemed to me at the time, that it was quite a waste of effort and materials since they were not using it somewhere else where it was much needed.
But, then I started thinking about that after the comment and my response (above) and realized that those aquatic weeds that are choking areas could be harvested, packaged (without removing all the water from the plant tissues), bundled in biodegradable mesh and dumped by cargo plane on the areas where erosion and desertification were increasing. That is possible and it would re-introduce some water into the area by virtue of that water being in the plant tissues and as they break down, it would be released.
There are trees that are being planted as a wind break, much as they did to reclaim the great dust bowl in the United States, but without some increase in grasslands, moisture content, soil reparations and protection of existing areas, those efforts are not going to solve the problems, especially as massive wind and sandstorms have already started.
I’ll look for that video clip from the stories surrounding the Beijing Olympics. There are also mining operations that were started west of these areas which are very likely contributing to the problem through changes in the land generally, the strip mining process, and also from diversions of water resources for other uses in the same area.
It is a man-made problem that these deserts across the world are increasing and that sandstorms in many countries are becoming life-threatening events occurring more frequently. They could be reversed, but it will take more than a barrier of trees planted and irrigation is simply depleting the existing water table / aquifer resources at alarming rates.
If aquatic weeds and silt were dredged out, packaged in something biodegradable and dropped by air over these areas – it would take a while but maybe soil could be rebuilt and nutrients re-introduced as erosion is deterred to some extent.
- cricketdiane
***
green tech, eco solutions, global warming and climate change, geoengineering
***
By Gerard Wynn
LONDON (Reuters) – Farming plankton, sending solar panels into orbit, remodeling hydrogen — for the latest wave of entrepreneurs suggesting easier ways out of climate change, it’s all in a day’s pitching.
[ etc.]
Some plans seek radical alternatives to fossil fuels. Other businesses are dreaming of geoengineering — planning to tweak the earth’s climate by removing heat-trapping carbon dioxide (CO2) or reflecting sunlight into space.
Among new energy fixes presented to Reuters in recent days is U.S.-based BlackLight Power.
The company says it may have tapped the energy that cosmologists have struggled to explain, called dark matter, which fills the universe. The concept involves shifting electrons in hydrogen molecules — obtained cheaply from water — into a lower orbit, releasing energy in the process.
“It represents a boundless form of new primary energy,” Randell Mills, founder and chief executive, told Reuters in a telephone interview.
“I think it’s going to replace all forms of fuel in the world.”
Britain’s top science academy, the Royal Society, this week urged more funds be channeled into research on geoengineering, but for some climate commentators the unproven, technical solutions smack of society’s craving for pain-free get-outs.
They note politicians may prefer to feed that habit rather than face tough choices in redressing global warming.
[ . . . ]
In another energy fix, California-based Solaren wants to launch solar panels into orbit to send back radio waves which can generate electricity back on Earth — and benefit from the sun shining 24 hours a day in space.
“It’s not like a laser or a bug zapper or anything like that,” said Founder and Chief Executive Gary Spirnak. “I think this could be like any other large power source, 20-25 percent of the world’s electricity, 30 or 40 years out.”
Solaren aims to produce electricity from a 200 megawatt prototype by 2016 at a cost of several billions of dollars per plant: “It’s a little expensive for a 200 megawatt plant. We’ll do a bit better than break even.”
Spirnak said his company has raised “the equivalent of $20-30 million from financial groups and private investors,” and signed a power-purchase agreement with Californian utility PG&E, whose Web site shows a request for approval for power generated in this way from California’s Public Utilities Commission.
“The bottom line is, it’s safe,” said Spirnak. “If you’re out in the sun for a few minutes at noon time you’d receive at least five times the intensity as you would at the very peak of our pilot beam.”
[ etc.]
In case the world can’t contain its carbon emissions, among geoengineering fixes Dan Whaley, founder and chief executive of California-based Climos, hopes tiny plankton that live on the ocean surface can be used to absorb CO2 as they grow.
“These are not silver bullet solutions, but things that might take the edge off,” he told Reuters. “What is the risk of doing nothing? We think it’s so extraordinary it’s apocalyptic. These geoengineering projects, the research into this, is an exercise to reduce future risk.”
Global plankton deployment across 40 percent of the world’s oceans for 50-100 years could remove 1-8 billion tons of CO2 per year from the air, he said. That compares with annual manmade emissions now of about 32 billion tons.
[etc.]
Soil Carbon is a company urging changes in farm livestock management, to rotate grazing across wider tracts of shared land rather than cooping animals in a handful of fields.
The idea is focused on seasonally dry areas, to imitate the grazing of wild herbivores such as wildebeest in Africa.
By grazing cattle intensively but briefly in fields or paddocks rotated across a larger area, the grass would be fertilized with dung and grow back after grazing and trampling.
“I reckon you could have billions of tons (of CO2) pulled out of the atmosphere really quickly,” said founder Tony Lovell. Grass absorbs CO2 as it grows and deposits it in the soil.
Seasonally dry pastures account for 40 percent of the Earth’s land area, or 5 billion hectares, and only remnants are managed in balance at present, he said.
[ . . . ]
[from -]
http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE58202P20090903?pageNumber=3&virtualBrandChannel=10522
***
My Note -
I was watching Tony Blair and Jet Li in one of the specials created about a project village in China that is working on fully self-sustainable energy sources throughout the entire village. It occurred to me that Tony Blair and his powerful cohorts in his “circles” do not understand that many, many people across the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and around the World have been desiring sustainable energy systems for their homes and lives for many years.
The leadership players continue to think that none want to adopt the technologies. When are they going to make them possible for all of us to have – it could’ve already been done if they hadn’t been funding crude oil based technologies to the exclusion of all else. There is an assumption that the populations in countries around the world will not adopt these things or do not understand them or will not accept them or do not understand the need for them . . . That’s a bunch a hogwilly doodle.
Even when my Dad was in college during the 1950’s, there was a thrust for self-sustaining alternatives in energy and living environments, wind power, a desire for solar power, and high energy tech solutions, such as miniaturized fusion reactions harnessed for their power. Studies have been ongoing since fission processes were engineered to harness steam power from their thermal radiation capacities.
I don’t know that water generated power started anytime close to my lifetime, but its continued progress of breakthroughs and new understandings was certainly decimated while I’ve been alive. It is inexcusable when the need for it has been known across academia, the scientific communities and most of the population, as well.
As with many things, those funds for research and the applications of technologies from that research have been diverted through many political choices of the last fifty years. The choices have influenced academics, scientists and leaders of today, to believe that people won’t accept or adopt something different than we have already or that our populations will refuse to understand the need for these things. Electricity and petroleum based transportation and industries wouldn’t be available reasonable today, if we hadn’t subsidized them and their research and their infrastructures with money and efforts from all of us. They simply aren’t the final answer after all.
And, by the way – sequestering c02 (carbon dioxide) by pumping it into the ground would be like placing a syringe in a coke bottle to pump in the soda. – Think it through – doesn’t that create a potentially lethal, life-altering problem later on down the road? The killer lakes – the co2 in quantity that kills and can explode – known facts – what are they thinking when their plan is to pump the co2 into underground chambers or introduced into places where it had never naturally occurred?
- cricketdiane, 09-03-09
***
September 2, 2009
Free Landsat Scenes Go Public by the Million
Released: 8/20/2009 3:26:01 PM
| Contact Information: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey Office of Communication 119 National Center Reston, VA 20192 |
Ron Beck  Phone:     605-594-6550
Joan Moody |
On August 17, someone who wanted to see how the Earth looks from 440 miles away in space downloaded the one-millionth Landsat satellite image scene from a U.S. Geological Survey web site at its Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Since the USGS opened its full Landsat archive to user access at no charge last October, the response from across the nation and around the globe has grown exponentially.
“USGS satellite operations and its data archives at EROS enable experts, or any interested member of the public, to see the land objectively with unbiased, consistently calibrated data,” said Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar. “The historical depth and reliability of these earth observations are vital to scientists and land managers across the country and across the Department of the Interior in projects that range from climate change studies and invasive species surveys to the monitoring of drought and assessment of wildfire damage.”
One development of particular note is that the very oldest data in the archive, dating to over three decades ago, is being downloaded at unprecedented levels – with land-surface change detection emerging as a primary use of Landsat data.
“The opening of the Landsat archive to free, web-based access is like giving a library card for the world’s best library of Earth conditions to everyone in the world,” said Adam Gerrand, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Landsat 1 was launched on July 23, 1972, and subsequent Landsat missions have continually acquired land-image data across the globe. Scientists, educators, and the general public use these data for a wide array of activities ranging from supporting disaster relief efforts to making agricultural crop assessments to identifying sites for cell phone towers.
Landsat scenes can be previewed and downloaded through the USGS Global Visualization Viewer or USGS EarthExplorer.
Additional information on satellites, sensors, data, and the Landsat Program, which is managed by the USGS in partnership with NASA, can be found at the Landsat Missions Web site.
Subscribe to USGS News Releases via our electronic mailing list or RSS feed.
**** www.usgs.gov ****
[from]
http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=2293&from=rss_home
***
September 1, 2009
Desert Research Institute
Tom Swafford, left, and Bryan Loss dismantle cloud-seeding equipment at Alpine Meadows outside Truckee, Calif. Such dismantling efforts are on hold as the Desert Research Institute, which has operated the cloud-seeding program for years, works with Washoe County to find funding and resuscitate the program.
Monday, Aug. 31, 2009 | 2 a.m.
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When Southern Nevada Water Authority General Manager Pat Mulroy suggested the agency fund a shuttering Desert Research Institute cloud seeding program, it turned more than a few heads.
The project is vital to a stable water supply in Northern Nevada, but what does it have to do with Southern Nevada?
Well, not much — at least not right now.
The cloud-seeding program provided precipitation to some of the rural ground water basins from which the authority wants to eventually pump water for Las Vegas.
The authority has been involved in the institute’s cloud-seeding program for years — but not in Nevada. It has paid the research institute $121,000 over the past three years to conduct cloud-seeding research and spur precipitation in the mountains between Denver and Grand Junction, Colo. The bill went to the authority’s Enterprise Fund, which gets most of its money from wholesale delivery charges to municipal water agencies.
Because 90 percent of Las Vegas’ drinking water comes from the Colorado River, and because snowmelt from the upper basin has dropped amid the drought, paying for cloud seeding there made sense. In that case, the authority was effectively trying to create its own water.
Cloud seeding means adding chemicals to clouds to induce or increase precipitation. In Nevada that most often involves pumping silver iodide particles into clouds from a remote controlled mountaintop station when the right cloud patterns are present. The silver iodide changes the composition of ultracold water in the clouds, turning the liquid into snow or ice, which then falls to the ground.
Desert Research Institute has 23 cloud-seeding stations in Nevada and six in the Sierra Nevada range along the California-Nevada border. They create about 65,000 acre-feet of precipitation each year in Nevada, mostly in the form of snow, according to institute data.
The institute is a world leader in cloud-seeding research and technology dating to the 1970s. The program developed remote-controlled mountaintop cloud seeding stations used today in Nevada and around the world.
But in this year’s legislative session, funding for the program dried up. With the economy in a shambles and not enough new income, the Legislature made deep cuts in the higher education budget. Desert Research Institute gets only about 15 percent of its budget from the state, but the cuts were felt mainly by the institute’s service-oriented divisions, such as the cloud-seeding program, which get most or all of their funding from state coffers.
The cloud-seeding program is small and appears to have been relatively efficient, with, at most, five highly trained employees with years of experience. Its budget was $550,000 to $600,000 a year, depending on how much cloud seeding took place.
The program served the community in important ways but didn’t bring in many grants or closely align with the core mission of research, institute President Stephen Wells said.
“I don’t have any sources of money to go to keep these parts of DRI functional,” Wells said. “It was a terrible choice I was forced to make.”
How Southern Nevadans might benefit from manipulating precipitation above the Sierra Nevada range and in northeastern Nevada, from which we currently get no water, isn’t as clear.
Las Vegas Valley Water District spokesman J.C. Davis says it all comes down location and timing.
The seeding program increases snowpack by 2 percent to 10 percent, the higher percentages coming in drought years, according to the institute’s figures. When that snowpack melts, some of it recharges the aquifers in the valleys below.
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The water authority owns water rights in four such aquifers between here and White Pine County. It has suspended an application for more water in the fifth, Snake Valley, a ranching community below Great Basin National Park on the Utah border.
Water authority staff members are examining whether it would be in Southern Nevada’s best interest to fund part of the core cloud-seeding program, which would make it possible for the institute to continue seeding above the Colorado River basin while supporting cloud seeding above the basins in which it owns water rights.
Keep the water coming in now, when the drought is at its height, they hypothesize, and you’ve got a better chance of pulling something out of the ground in the future.
Northern Nevada, though, is immediately dependent on that snow. It, like much of the rest of the West, has been hit hard by a multiyear drought. The additional tens of thousands of acre-feet of precipitation created each year by the seeding program has kept ski slopes open and stabilized the region’s aquifers, Washoe County Commissioner John Breternitz said.
“In Northern Nevada we’re hard pressed every winter to have enough water to get by,” he said. “The cloud seeding is an added insurance.”
That’s why Northern Nevada is trying to find ways to pay for it. Breternitz is building a coalition of business owners, politicians and residents to raise money to get the project back up and running.
The institute is preparing reports for the Truckee Meadows Water Authority, Washoe County and the Southern Nevada Water Authority on what it would take to resuscitate the program. It has also ordered its staff to stop dismantling the seeding stations.
“We’re in the ramping up mode where we’re trying to get the word out and see if we can find anyone who can fund it on the interim basis and then find a long-term funding mechanism,” Breternitz said. “The state needs to understand how important this program is to Nevada.”
The water authority’s entrance into the discussion, though, has changed the dialogue. The agency wants to pump tens of thousands of acre-feet of water each year from rural Nevada basins. Most rural Nevadans, including many in areas that depend on cloud seeding, oppose that prospect.
// <![CDATA[
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// <![CDATA[
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The Bureau of Land Management is expecting to complete its draft environmental impact statement on the pipeline in early 2010, but construction isn’t likely to begin for several years.
The project faces mounting opposition from ranchers, farmers, environmentalists, American Indians and national parks enthusiasts who say it will suck dry some of the most beautiful country in the state and ruin the lives of local residents.
The authority has acquired water rights in four of the five basins from which it wants water. In Spring Valley, it had to purchase and operate large ranches to get the water it wanted. And it has made deals with Lincoln County to exchange 3,000 acre-feet of water each year for support for its water rights applications there. The agency recently agreed, as part of a water basin agreement between Nevada and Utah, to wait 10 years before pursuing the water rights it applied for in a final basin, Snake Valley.
Pipeline opponents see the cloud-seeding proposition as yet another way the water authority is trying to manipulate rural Nevadans into supporting the pipeline. For them and other pipeline foes, it serves as another “ah ha” moment.
“It appears that the SNWA is acknowledging that there just isn’t enough water in the basins they have targeted, at least if they are going to avoid widespread defoliation and environmental destruction,” said Launce Rake, spokesman for the Progressive Leadership Alliance of Nevada.
http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2009/aug/31/budget-well-dry/
***
Authority may invest in cloud seeding
Published: Sept. 1, 2009 at 1:54 AM
LAS VEGAS, Sept. 1 (UPI) — A state water authority manager suggests providing public funds for seeding clouds in Northern Nevada for drinking water in Las Vegas.
Southern Nevada Water Authority General Manager Pat Mulroy suggested his agency provide funds to keep a Desert Research Institute cloud seeding program operating, The Las Vegas Sun reported Monday.
Water authority staff members must determine whether it would be in southern Nevada’s best interest to fund part of the cloud-seeding program, so the DRI could continue seeding above the Colorado River basin and other basins.
DRI has 23 cloud-seeding stations in Nevada and six in the Sierra Nevada range along the California border, which create an additional 65,000 acre-feet of precipitation, mostly snow. This increases the snowpack by between 2 percent in wet years and 10 percent in drought years.
When that melts some of the water recharges the aquifers in the lower valleys and provides water to Las Vegas, Las Vegas Valley Water District spokesman J.C. Davis said.
http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2009/09/01/Authority-may-invest-in-cloud-seeding/UPI-84131251784470/
***
***
The Nevada State Cloud Seeding Program
As a form of weather modification, cloud seeding is aimed at stimulating snowfall in selected mountainous regions of Nevada to increase the snowpack, resulting in more spring runoff and water supplies in the surrounding areas.
The Nevada State Cloud Seeding Program is operated by the Desert Research Institute Division of Atmospheric Sciences, located in the Northern Nevada Science Center (NNSC), Reno, Nevada. The State program originated as an outgrowth of DRI weather modification research programs funded through USBR and NOAA.
Current DRI research is focused on the quantitative evaluation of winter storm cloud seeding using trace chemistry, atmospheric model simulations of seeding plume transport, and hydrologic modeling to estimate the additional runoff due to cloud seeding.
News and Information
* Western Regional Climate Center
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
* DRI Division of Atmospheric Sciences
***
My Note -
To what extent has this ongoing cloud seeding program contributed to the increasing desertification of the Western and mid-Western United States?
And, why didn’t they seed the massive hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico before they wiped out populations along the coast?
When did these programs get auto-magically created despite the possible repercussions – what happened to the whole argument about cloud seeding not being viable because of the potential that it would alter the weather patterns, cause drought conditions in other areas, create flooding where it wasn’t intended, etc., etc., etc.? And who the hell decided to go ahead and to seed the clouds on a massive and regular basis without it becoming common knowledge in the news, in academic communities and around the rest of America?
And – when Hurricane Katrina was bearing down on the coast as a category 4 or 5 storm – why didn’t the experts from NOAA and Universities who appeared on cable news and discussed seeding those storm clouds say anything about the cloud seeding program that had obviously been in use over the last fifty years, certainly since the 1970’s as a common practice?
I just don’t get it . . . unless human lives mean nothing to the Republicans – is that the one defining factor that I’ve failed to recognize about them which makes the rest of it make sense?
- cricketdiane, 09-01-09
***
You know what it amounts to, is that the people in California are just going to have to move. Its ridiculous to have that many people and that much of our infrastructure sitting on an earthquake zone with mud slides, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, smog, pollution and rising sea water levels, yet without enough usable water for the population to actually survive. It isn’t going to work anymore – we might as well start making room for them somewhere else around the United States because they sure can’t keep living there.
***
August 27, 2009
| Established | 1977 |
|---|---|
| Research Type | Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy |
| Budget | 328 Million (2009)[1] |
| Director | Dan E. Arvizu |
| Staff | 1,230 |
| Location | Golden, CO |
| Operating Agency | Midwest Research Institute and Battelle Memorial Institute |
| Website | www.nrel.gov |
NREL – Golden, Colorado
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), located in Golden, Colorado, as part of the U.S. Department of Energy, is the United States‘ primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development.
Contents
|
Established in 1974, NREL began operating in 1977 as the Solar Energy Research Institute.
Under the Carter administration, it was the recipient of a rather large budget and its activities went beyond research and development in solar energy as it tried to popularize knowledge about already existing technologies, like passive solar amongst the population.
In the Reagan years that followed the budget was cut by some 90%, many people ‘reduced in force’ and the activities reduced to R&D.
In later years renewed interest in the energy problem improved the institute’s position. But funding has fluctuated.
In 2006 its funding had dropped to the point it was forced to lay off 32 workers [2] .
It was designated a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) in September 1991 and its name changed to NREL. Since its inception it has been operated under contract by the Midwest Research Institute of Kansas City, Missouri.[3]
NREL is the principal research laboratory for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) which provides the majority of its funding.
Other funding comes from DOE’s Office of Science and Office of Electricity Transmission and Distribution.
NREL’s areas of research and development expertise are:
For 2009 funding is broken down between its major groups.
NREL’s Technology Transfer Office supports the practical deployment of technologies developed, and this often involves collaborative research projects and licensed technologies with public and private partners.
NREL’s innovative technologies have been recognized with 39 “R&D 100″ awards. The engineering and science behind these technology transfer successes and awards demonstrates NREL’s commitment to a sustainable energy future.[4]
Dr. Dan E. Arvizu became NREL’s eighth Laboratory Director in January 2005, and was previously an executive with CH2M HILL companies.
NREL PV R&D is performed under the National Center for Photovoltaics [6].
NREL tests and validates solar technologies.
The main research wind turbines at NREL
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: National Renewable Energy Laboratory |
This is a list of notable renewable energy organizations:
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour deposition, electroplating, and use of Ultrasonic Nozzles are advantageous as they reduce high temperature processing significantly. It is commonly accepted that as manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated by constituent material requirements,[7] whether this be a silicon substrate, or glass cover.
The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide, amorphous silicon and micromorphous silicon.[6] These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics, reducing material mass and therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of higher conversion efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper production costs.
Among major manufacturers there is certainly a trend toward second generation technologies, however commercialisation of these technologies has proven difficult.[9] In 2007 First Solar produced 200 MW of CdTe solar cells making it the fifth largest producer of solar cells in 2007 and the first ever to reach the top 10 from production of second generation technologies alone.[9] Wurth Solar commercialised its CIGS technology in 2007 producing 15 MW. Nanosolar commercialised its CIGS technology in 2007 with a production capacity of 430 MW for 2008 in the USA and Germany.[10]Honda, also began to commercialize their CIGS base solar panel in 2008.
In 2007, CdTe production represented 8.9% of total market share, thin-film silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.[9]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
**
My Note –
I started here because the thin film technology is more valuable to what is in my mind and then I thought it might be good to remember some of the other things found in the listing -
Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low production costs.
Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.[7] They can exceed the theoretical solar conversion efficiency limit for a single energy threshold material, that was calculated in 1961 by Shockley and Queisser as 31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under the maximal artificial concentration of sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to approach than the former).[11]
There are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies including the use of Multijunction photovoltaic cells, concentration of the incident spectrum, the use of thermal generation by UV light to enhance voltage or carrier collection, or the use of the infrared spectrum for night-time operation.
**
High efficiency solar cells are a class of solar cell that can generate more electricity per incident solar power unit (watt/watt). Much of the industry is focused on the most cost efficient technologies in terms of cost per generated power. The two main strategies to bring down the cost of photovoltaic electricity are increasing the efficiency (as many of the costs scale with the area occupied per unit of generated power), and decreasing the cost of the solar cells per generated unit of power. The latter approach might come at the expense of reduced efficiency, so the overall cost of the photovoltaic electricity does not necessarily decrease by decreasing the cost of the solar cells. The challenge of increasing the photovoltaic efficiency is thus of great interest, both from the academic and economic points of view.
The record for multiple junction solar cells is disputed. Teams led by the University of Delaware, the Fraunhofer Institute, and NREL all claim the world record title at 42.8, 41.1, and 40.8 percent, respectively.[12][13][14] NREL claims that the other implementations have not been put under standardized tests and, in the case of the University of Delaware project, represents only hypothetical efficiencies of a panel that has not been fully assembled.[15] NREL claims it is one of only three laboratories in the world capable of conducting valid tests, although the Fraunhofer Institute is among those three facilities.
In 2002, the highest reported efficiency for solar cells based on thin films of CdTe is 18%, which was achieved by research at Sheffield Hallam University, although this has not been confirmed by an external test laboratory[citation needed].
The US national renewable energy research facility NREL achieved an efficiency of 19.9% for the solar cells based on copper indium gallium selenide thin films, also known as CIGS. These CIGS films have been grown by physical vapour deposition in a three-stage co-evaporation process. In this process In, Ga and Se are evaporated in the first step; in the second step it is followed by Cu and Se co-evaporation and in the last step terminated by In, Ga and Se evaporation again
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
****
The values of I0, RS, and RSH are dependent upon the physical size of the solar cell. In comparing otherwise identical cells, a cell with twice the surface area of another will, in principle, have double the I0 because it has twice the junction area across which current can leak. It will also have half the RS and RSH because it has twice the cross-sectional area through which current can flow. For this reason, the characteristic equation is frequently written in terms of current density, or current produced per unit cell area:
![J = J_{L} - J_{0} \left\{\exp\left[\frac{q(V + J r_{S})}{nkT}\right] - 1\right\} - \frac{V + J r_{S}}{r_{SH}}](http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/6/d/1/6d1690ed4b41c1e3d27569b0877a6b73.png)
where
This formulation has several advantages. One is that since cell characteristics are referenced to a common cross-sectional area they may be compared for cells of different physical dimensions. While this is of limited benefit in a manufacturing setting, where all cells tend to be the same size, it is useful in research and in comparing cells between manufacturers. Another advantage is that the density equation naturally scales the parameter values to similar orders of magnitude, which can make numerical extraction of them simpler and more accurate even with naive solution methods.
A practical limitation of this formulation is that as cell sizes shrink, certain parasitic effects grow in importance and can affect the extracted parameter values. For example, recombination and contamination of the junction tend to be greatest at the perimeter of the cell, so very small cells may exhibit higher values of J0 or lower values of rSH than larger cells that are otherwise identical. In such cases, comparisons between cells must be made cautiously and with these effects in mind.
Effect of temperature on the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell
Temperature affects the characteristic equation in two ways: directly, via T in the exponential term, and indirectly via its effect on I0. (Strictly speaking, temperature affects all of the terms, but these two far more significantly than the others.) While increasing T reduces the magnitude of the exponent in the characteristic equation, the value of I0 increases in proportion to exp(T). The net effect is to reduce VOC (the open-circuit Voltage) linearly with increasing temperature. The magnitude of this reduction is inversely proportional to VOC; that is, cells with higher values of VOC suffer smaller reductions in voltage with increasing temperature. For most crystalline silicon solar cells the reduction is about 0.50%/°C, though the rate for the highest-efficiency crystalline silicon cells is around 0.35%/°C. By way of comparison, the rate for amorphous silicon solar cells is 0.20-0.30%/°C, depending on how the cell is made.
The amount of photogenerated current IL increases slightly with increasing temperature because of an increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in the cell. This effect is slight, however: about 0.065%/°C for crystalline silicon cells and 0.09% for amorphous silicon cells.
The overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency can be computed using these factors in combination with the characteristic equation. However, since the change in voltage is much stronger than the change in current, the overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on voltage. Most crystalline silicon solar cells decline in efficiency by 0.50%/°C and most amorphous cells decline by 0.15-0.25%/°C. The figure to the right shows I-V curves that might typically be seen for a crystalline silicon solar cell at various temperatures.
Effect of series resistance on the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell
As series resistance increases, the voltage drop between the junction voltage and the terminal voltage becomes greater for the same flow of current. The result is that the current-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the terminal voltage V and a slight reduction in ISC, the short-circuit current. Very high values of RS will also produce a significant reduction in ISC; in these regimes, series resistance dominates and the behavior of the solar cell resembles that of a resistor. These effects are shown for crystalline silicon solar cells in the I-V curves displayed in the figure to the right.
[etc. ]
Most solar cells, which are quite large compared to conventional diodes, well approximate an infinite plane and will usually exhibit near-ideal behavior under Standard Test Condition (
). Under certain operating conditions, however, device operation may be dominated by recombination in the space-charge region. This is characterized by a significant increase in I0 as well as an increase in ideality factor to 
. The latter tends to increase solar cell output voltage while the former acts to erode it. The net effect, therefore, is a combination of the increase in voltage shown for increasing n in the figure to the right and the decrease in voltage shown for increasing I0 in the figure above. Typically, I0 is the more significant factor and the result is a reduction in voltage.
Dust often accumulates on the glass of solar panels seen here as black dots.
A solar cell’s energy conversion efficiency (η, “eta”), is the percentage of power converted (from absorbed light to electrical energy) and collected, when a solar cell is connected to an electrical circuit. This term is calculated using the ratio of the maximum power point, Pm, divided by the input light irradiance (E, in W/m2) under standard test conditions (STC) and the surface area of the solar cell (Ac in m2).
STC specifies a temperature of 25°C and an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with an air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrum. These correspond to the irradiance and spectrum of sunlight incident on a clear day upon a sun-facing 37°-tilted surface with the sun at an angle of 41.81° above the horizon.[21][22] This condition approximately represents solar noon near the spring and autumn equinoxes in the continental United States with surface of the cell aimed directly at the sun. Thus, under these conditions a solar cell of 12% efficiency with a 100 cm2 (0.01 m2) surface area can be expected to produce approximately 1.2 watts of power.
The losses of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance losses, thermodynamic efficiency, recombination losses and resistive electrical loss. The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual losses.
Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured instead: Thermodynamic Efficiency, Quantum Efficiency, VOC ratio, and Fill Factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the Quantum Efficiency under “External Quantum Efficiency”. Recombination losses make up a portion of the Quantum Efficiency, VOC ratio, and Fill Factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under Fill Factor, but also make up minor portions of the Quantum Efficiency, VOC ratio.
Solar cells operate as quantum energy conversion devices, and are therefore subject to the “Thermodynamic Efficiency Limit”. Photons with an energy below the band gap of the absorber material cannot generate a hole-electron pair, and so their energy is not converted to useful output and only generates heat if absorbed. For photons with an energy above the band gap energy, only a fraction of the energy above the band gap can be converted to useful output. When a photon of greater energy is absorbed, the excess energy above the band gap is converted to kinetic energy of the carrier combination. The excess kinetic energy is converted to heat through phonon interactions as the kinetic energy of the carriers slows to equilibrium velocity.
Solar cells with multiple band gap absorber materials are able to more efficiently convert the solar spectrum. By using multiple band gaps, the solar spectrum may be broken down into smaller bins where the thermodynamic efficiency limit is higher for each bin.[24]
As described above, when a photon is absorbed by a solar cell it can produce a pair of free charge carriers, i.e. an electron-hole pair. One of the carriers (the minority carrier) may then be able to reach the p-n junction and contribute to the current produced by the solar cell; such a carrier is said to be collected. Alternatively, the carrier may give up its energy and once again become bound to an atom within the solar cell without being collected; this process is then called recombination since one electron and one hole recombine and thereby annihilate the associated free charge. The carriers that recombine do not contribute to the generation of electrical current.
Quantum efficiency refers to the percentage of photons that are converted to electric current (i.e., collected carriers) when the cell is operated under short circuit conditions. External quantum efficiency (EQE) is the fraction of incident photons that are converted to electrical current, while internal quantum efficiency (IQE) is the fraction of absorbed photons that are converted to electrical current. Mathematically, internal quantum efficiency is related to external quantum efficiency by the reflectance (R) and the transmittance (T) of the solar cell by IQE = EQE / (1 − R − T). Please note that for a thick bulk Si solar cell T is approximately zero and is therefore in practical cases often neglected.
Quantum efficiency should not be confused with energy conversion efficiency, as it does not convey information about the fraction of power that is converted by the solar cell. Furthermore, quantum efficiency is most u
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